Urzúa et al. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica            (2021) 34:3 Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica
https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-020-00168-3
RESEARCH Open Access
Validation of the brief scale for the
evaluation of acculturation stress in
migrant population (EBEA)
Alfonso Urzúa1* , Diego Henríquez1 , Alejandra Caqueo-Urízar2 and Vanessa Smith-Castro3
Abstract
Background: Acculturation stress is associated with poorer physical and mental health and a lower level of
psychological well-being. The causes of acculturation stress are diverse, but most are similar in the migrant
population. Despite the importance of evaluating this variable, few studies have reported culturally adapted and
validated instruments for specific populations. Based on this, the aim of this study was to evaluate the
psychometric properties of a short scale for the evaluation of acculturation stress (EBEA).
Methods: Two studies were conducted, involving 1725 first-generation Colombian and Peruvian migrants living in
Chile, between the ages of 18 and 60 years. In addition to the EBEA and as evidence of validity, the Beck Anxiety
Scale and the WHOQOL-BREF psychological health domain were applied. A confirmatory factor analysis was carried
out, and the reliability and nomological validity were evaluated.
Results: The results in both studies indicated that the scale presents a factorial structure of three dimensions: (a)
the stress derived from the preparation and departure from the country of origin, (b) the stress produced by
socioeconomic concerns in the host country, and (c) the tensions typical of adaptation to sociocultural changes or
Chilean society. The reliability coefficients and the analysis of their nomological validity were very good.
Conclusions: The EBEA is a measure that offers quick, useful screening for researchers who need a short measure
for research among migrants. This tool contributes to the work of education, prevention, and intervention in the
field of general health and migrants’ mental health.
Keywords: Acculturation, Acculturation stress, Migrant, Migration, Stress
Introduction From a psychological perspective, migration implies
By mid-2019, about 272 million people were living out- major changes to people’s lives, often accompanied by
side their country of birth (United Nations, 2019), of distinctive stressors that affect their psychological well-
which 10 million were immigrants living in South being and adaptation (Berry, 2008). Stress by accultur-
America (International Organization for Migration, ation is a concept coined by the psychology of intercul-
2020). In addition, migration pressures within and out- tural contact and acculturation to describe this specific
side borders are expected to increase in the coming de- type of stress (Berry, Kim, Minde, & Mok, 1987). Ac-
cades due to demographic forces, changes in the labour cording to the literature, acculturation is understood as
market, and climate change (World Bank Group, 2020). a process resulting from contact between two or more
cultural groups with impacts at a group level, producing
transformations in social and institutional structures,
* Correspondence: alurzua@ucn.cl and at the individual level, bringing about behavioural
1Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Avda. Angamos, 0610 changes (Berry, 2005).
Antofagasta, Chile
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
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Urzúa et al. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica            (2021) 34:3 Page 2 of 10
People involved in the process of acculturation experi- Aculturación, EBEA) was constructed to measure three
ence processes of change in different areas of psycho- dimensions of the degree of stress perceived in the mi-
logical functioning, such as language, cognitive styles, gratory process, namely (1) the stress derived from prep-
personal and social identity, attitudes and values, and be- aration and departure from the country of origin, (2) the
haviour. These processes of change can evolve with great stress produced by socioeconomic concerns in the host
fluidity and ease, but can also be more problematic, ac- country, and (3) the tensions inherent to adaption to
companied by cultural conflict and inter-group tensions sociocultural changes or Chilean society. These dimen-
(Berry, 2005, 2008). sions cover relevant aspects of the experiences of immi-
At the individual level, such changes may be expressed grants once they have settled in the receiving society and
as simple behavioural adaptations (modifications in ways aspects of the emigration process that are not covered
of dressing, speaking, eating), or may become more by other measures available in our environment.
complicated and be reflected in states of stress and man- It is expected that EBEA will be useful to execute a
ifestations such as uncertainty, anxiety, or depression rapid screening of the effects of migration on the immi-
(Berry, 2005). Specifically, when the demands of adapta- grant population in general, which in turn can serve for
tion to the new culture exceed people’s abilities to cope, future research in the area, constituting a tool that con-
this type of stress arises, which is defined as the experi- tributes to the work of education, prevention, and inter-
ence of adverse physical and emotional reactions as a re- vention in the field of general health and mental health
sult of the complex process of adaptation to a new with these groups.
cultural context (Arbona et al., 2010).
Indeed, previous studies have found important associa- Methods
tions between acculturation stress and physical and Design
mental health problems in adults (Sternberg & Lee, The study had a cross-sectional and instrumental design.
2013; Urzúa, Basabe, Pizarro, & Ferrer, 2017; Urzúa, Convenience sampling was used.
Heredia, & Caqueo-Urízar, 2016), adolescents (Belhadj
and Koglin, 2015), and children (Urzúa, Caqueo-Urízar, Sample
& Flores, 2019). Moreover, it occurs in various sociocul- Study 1
tural groups involved in acculturation processes such as Of the 912 Colombian immigrants, 51.9% lived in Anto-
refugees (Ugalde-Watson, Smith-Castro, Moreno-Salas, fagasta (n = 473), 23.7% in Arica (n = 216), and 24.5% in
& Rodríguez-García, 2011), immigrants (Mera-Lemp, Santiago (n = 223), Chile. Participants’ ages ranged from
Martínez-Zelaya, Orellana, & Smith-Castro, 2020; Urzúa, 18 to 60 years, with a mean age of 35.06 years (SD =
Caqueo-Urízar, Carvajal, & Páez, 2017; Urzúa, Leiva- 9.65). A total of 461 participants were women (50.5%)
Gutiérrez, Caqueo-Urízar, & Vera-Villarroel, 2019), and 451 participants were men (49.5%). The participants
international students (Castro and Perugini, 2013), and agreed voluntarily and anonymously to complete the
ethnic minorities (Smith-Castro, 2003). questionnaire after signing an informed consent form.
Within this research corpus, important efforts have
been dedicated to measuring acculturation stress in an Study 2
adequate manner, either through general measures of A total of 831 immigrants participated, of whom 52.2%
stress, anxiety, depression, life satisfaction, self-esteem, (n = 434) were Colombians (sample 1) and 47.8% were
and other behavioural indicators, or through the con- Peruvians (sample 2). Among sample 1, 53.2% resided in
struction of instruments to measure this specific type of Antofagasta (n = 231), 23.3% in Arica (n = 101), and
stress (Bashir & Khalid, 2020; Castro-Olivo, Palardy, 23.5% in Santiago (n = 102), Chile. The age of the partic-
Albeg, & Williamson, 2014; Chavez, Moran, Reid, & ipants ranged from 18 to 60 years, with a mean age of
Lopez, 1997; Rudmin, 2009). In Latin America, there is a 32.61 years (SD = 8.96). A total of 229 participants were
history of instruments used to measure this type of women (52.8%) and 205 participants were men (47.2%).
stress in refugees (Ugalde-Watson et al., 2011) and im- As for sample 2, 49.4% resided in Antofagasta (n = 196),
migrant children (Urzúa, Caqueo-Urízar, & Flores, 24.9% in Arica (n = 99), and 25.7% in Santiago (n =
2019). However, these measures have been constructed 102), Chile. Participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 60
specifically for such populations, so their usefulness in years, with a mean age of 33.35 years (SD = 9.40). A
applying them to other groups is limited. total of 198 participants were women (49.9%) and 199
The aim of this paper is to be the first to confirm, participants were men (50.1%). Table 1 presents the
through two studies, the validity and internal consistency summary and some additional characteristics of par-
of the brief scale to evaluate acculturation stress in a mi- ticipants in both studies. The participants agreed vol-
grant population. The Brief Scale of Acculturation Stress untarily and anonymously to fill out the questionnaire
(Escala Breve para la Evaluación del Estrés por after signing an informed consent form.
Urzúa et al. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica            (2021) 34:3 Page 3 of 10
Table 1 Participants and characteristics
Variable Category Study 1 Study 2 Total
Colombian (n = 912), Colombian (n = 434), Peruvian (n = 397), (n =
n (%) n (%) n (%) 1743), n
(%)
Gender Male 451 (49.5) 205 (47.2) 199 (50.1) 855 (49.1)
Female 461 (50.5) 229 (52.8) 198 (49.9) 888 (50.9)
Age group 18–30 319 (35.0) 213 (49.1) 170 (42.8) 702 (40.3)
31–60 593 (65.0) 221 (50.9) 227 (57.2) 1041 (59.7)
Arrival year 2000–2009 40 (4.5) 49 (6.0) 149 (38.3) 238 (14.0)
2010–2019 848 (95.5) 380 (46.5) 240 (29.3) 1468 (86.0)
City Northern end (Arica) 216 (23.7) 101 (23.3) 99 (24.9) 416 (23.9)
North (Antofagasta) 473 (51.9) 231 (53.2) 196 (49.4) 900 (51.6)
Centre (Santiago) 223 (24.5) 102 (23.5) 102 (25.7) 427 (24.5)
Years of education Less than 8 years of education 101 (11. 2) 26 (3.2) 33 (4.1) 160 (9.3)
8 years of education 230 (25.6) 89 (10.9) 69 (8.5) 388 (22.7)
12 years of education 309 (34.4) 144 (17.7) 129 (15.8) 582 (34.0)
More than 12 years of education 258 (28.7) 161 (19.8) 163 (20.0) 582 (34.0)
Occupational situation Active worker 653 (75.3) 300 (38.2) 289 (36.8) 1242 (75.2)
Unemployed 121 (14.0) 67 (8.5) 49 (6.2) 237 (14.3)
Student 33 (3.8) 14 (1.8) 8 (1.0) 55 (3.3)
Homemaker 57 (6.6) 25 (3.2) 27 (3.4) 109 (6.6)
Retired or pensioned 3 (0.3) 6 (0.8) 0 (0.0) 9 (0.5)
Measures In this research, we used a reduced version of the ori-
Acculturation stress ginal scale, which was developed in a previous study on
The Brief Scale for the Evaluation of Acculturation Stress discrimination, stress, and well-being through structural
(Escala Breve para la Evaluación del Estrés por Acultura- equation models. The original version was adapted using
ción, EBEA), designed for this study, assesses three dimen- information obtained through cognitive interviews with
sions of the degree of stress perceived in the migration Colombian and Peruvian migrants. Furthermore, with
process: (1) preparation and departure from the country of the authorization of the authors, the refugee dimension
origin (six items), (2) socioeconomic concerns (four items), was eliminated. The scale measurement models were
and (3) adaptation to the receiving society (four items). The analysed prior to the analysis of structural equations,
original scale is made up of 33 items specifically designed which resulted in the abbreviated scale used in the
to measure acculturation stress among the refugee popula- present investigation as a result.
tion in Costa Rica (Ugalde-Watson et al., 2011). Items ask The EBEA items are presented under the slogan ‘How
participants to rate the degree of stress (fear or anxiety) stressful (tense or distressing) did you find it...’, for ex-
experimented through distinct phases of their migration ample, ‘Adapting to Chilean ways of speaking’. The an-
process, from the decision to leave Colombia to the arrival swer options were based on a 5-point Likert scale,
and settlement in Costa Rica. A preliminary version of the responses ranged from 1 ‘Not at all stressful’ to 5 ‘Very
scale was peer-reviewed by social and cross-cultural psy- stressful’. High scores would account for a higher degree
chologists in Costa Rica. Cognitive interviewing (Smith- of acculturation stress.
Castro and Molina, 2011; Willis, 2005) was employed to de-
tect comprehension problems. Specifically, two female and Beck Anxiety Inventory
two male refugees completed the questionnaire and re- The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) is a questionnaire
ported cognitive challenges in answering the items. The de- that assesses common symptoms associated with anxiety
finitive version of the scale was applied to 100 refugees disorders via 21 questions. Each item is scored from 0 to
from Colombia (57% women), with ages ranging from 18 3 points, where the higher the score, the greater the
to 68 years (M = 39.68 years, SD = 11.93 years), who had presence of anxious symptoms. In this study, the
been living in Costa Rica around 4 years (M = 4.14, SD = Spanish version (Magán, Sanz, & García-Vera, 2008;
1.30) (Ugalde-Watson et al., 2011). Sanz, 2014) of the questionnaire elaborated in 1988
Urzúa et al. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica            (2021) 34:3 Page 4 of 10
(Beck, Epstein, Brown, & Steer, 1988) was used. This signed, it was kept in a sealed envelope, to ensure the
scale presented adequate levels of reliability (α = .96; ω = anonymity of the person.
.96), and its measurement model was adequately ad- In both studies, the questionnaires were anonymous
justed to the data (Par = 84; χ2 = 1352.927; DF = 189; and confidential, and were distributed in places with an
p = .00; IFC = .969; TLI = .966; RMSEA = .08). influx of foreigners such as the Department of Immigra-
tion, the Jesuit Migrant Service, and other areas where
immigrant populations congregate in the cities of Arica,
Psychological health (SPS)
Antofagasta, and Santiago, Chile. Each questionnaire was
To assess this, the domain on psychological health of the
answered individually in the presence of a surveyor to
WHOQOL-BREF questionnaire was used (World Health
resolve any doubts regarding the understanding of the
Organization Quality of Life Group - WhoQoL Group,
instruments. The interviewers were undergraduate stu-
1998); it was translated and adapted to Spanish by
dents working on a thesis who were specifically trained
Lucas-Carrasco (Lucas-Carrasco, 1998; Lucas-Carrasco,
in the application of the instrument.
2012). This questionnaire has presented valid and reli-
able scores in the Chilean context (Benitez-Borrego,
Statistical analysis
Guardia-Olmos, & Urzúa-Morales, 2014; Benítez-Bor-
The database was analysed using the statistical software
rego, Mancho-Fora, Farràs-Permanyer, Urzúa-Morales,
SPSS 24 and Mplus 8.2. First, to provide evidence of the
& Guàrdia-Olmos, 2016; Urzúa & Caqueo-Urízar, 2013)
factor structure of the test, a measurement model was
and has already been used in an immigrant population
estimated by confirmatory factor analysis on the samples
(Urzúa et al., 2015; Urzúa et al., 2017).
of the two studies separately. The model had to reflect
The complete questionnaire is structured around 26
the three theoretical dimensions of the construct by
questions grouped into four domains: physical, psycho-
obtaining high factorial saturations (λ > .5) of the items
logical, environmental, and social, of which we have used
for each of its factors: (1) preparation and departure
only the psychological one given its relationship with the
from the country of origin (6 items), (2) socioeconomic
variable under study. This domain contains six items
concerns (4 items), and (3) adaptation to the recipient
that reflect various facets of psychological health: posi-
society (4 items). Alternatively, a one-dimensional model
tive feelings (‘How much do you enjoy life?’), personal
was also evaluated, to rule out the possibility that the
beliefs (‘How much do you feel your life has meaning?’),
EBEA could reflect a single general factor.
concentration (‘What is your ability to concentrate?’),
Second, to provide evidence of the reliability of the test
body image (‘Are you able to accept your physical ap-
scores, internal consistency was estimated by calculating
pearance?’), self-esteem (‘How satisfied are you with
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (α) and omega coefficient
yourself?’), and negative feelings (‘How often did you
(ω) (Revelle & Zinbarg, 2009) for each of the scale di-
have negative feelings such as sadness, hopelessness,
mensions in each sample.
anxiety, and depression?’). The answers are given on a
Third, to assess the equivalence of the scale between
Likert-type scale, with options ranging from 1 to 5. The
different groups, two factorial invariance tests were per-
higher the score, the better the person’s psychological
formed, using gender and home country as grouping
health. In our study, the scale scores presented good reli-
variables. Following the recommendations of Chen
ability (α = .71; ω = .72), and its measurement model was
2 (2007), differences in fit between the levels of configuraladequately adjusted to the data (Par = 30; χ = 27,874; DF
invariance (as a base model), metric, and scalar were
= 9; p = .00; IFC = .988; TLI = .980; RMSEA = .05).
analysed. Changes below .010 for CFI and .015 for
Acculturation stress was measured in both studies, but
RMSEA are indicative of factor invariance between
since there are different studies, anxiety (BAI) was only
groups (Chen, 2007).
measured in study 1 and psychological health (SPS) was
Finally, nomological validity was evaluated, which re-
only measured in study 2.
fers to the existence of the empirical relationships be-
tween hypothetically related constructs (Aldás Manzano
Procedures & Uriel Jimenez, 2017). To provide evidence of the
This research is part of a larger project that assesses the EBEA’s nomological validity, three structural equation
effect of discrimination on the health and well-being of models were estimated. The first model (M1) presents
Chile’s immigrant population, which was reviewed and the relation between the scores of the dimensions of the
approved by the ethics committee of the Universidad EBEA and the BAI (study 1). The second and third
Católica del Norte, Chile. Before applying the measure- models (M2 and M3) present the relation between the
ment instruments, respondents were asked to sign an in- scores of the EBEA and the psychological health in two
formed consent form authorising the use of their different samples (study 2: sample 1 = Colombians, sam-
answers for research purposes. Once the consent was ple 2 = Peruvians).
Urzúa et al. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica            (2021) 34:3 Page 5 of 10
For the analysis of the models, the method of robust Factorial structure and estimated reliability
weighted least square mean and variance (WLSMV) was Table 3 shows the EBEA goodness-of-fit indicators in
used, which is robust with non-normal ordinal variables both studies and for each model. As can be seen, we
(Beauducel & Herzberg, 2006). Model fit was evaluated found no evidence to support the plausibility of EBEA
using several indexes: the comparative fit index (CFI), representing a one-dimensional structure of accultur-
the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), the root mean square ation stress. On the contrary, the results of the models
error of approximation (RMSEA), and the chi-square of measurement of three factors of the EBEA presented
(χ2). These indexes provide information about the dis- adequate indexes of goodness of adjustment, close to
crepancy between the variance/covariance matrix pro- those recommended by the literature, in all the samples
posed by the theoretical model (the proposed factor (Schreiber, 2017).
structure) and the variance/covariance matrix provided The factor loads, factor covariances, and reliability es-
by the subjects (Hu & Bentler, 1995). In general, a model timates for each dimension are presented in Table 4. As
is said to fit the data acceptably if the IFC and TLI are can be seen, the factorial saturations of each of the di-
greater than .90, the RMSEA is equal to or less than .05, mensions have high (λ > .5) and statistically significant
and the chi-square value is low and not significant factorial loads in all models. As for the representation of
(Schreiber, 2017). Because χ2 is usually significant in the relationships between factors, the dimensions
large samples such as these, even when the models are showed moderate (r > .30) to large (r > .50) correlations
properly adjusted (Hu & Bentler, 1995), this index is (Cohen, 1988) in both studies. Finally, reliability esti-
interpreted with caution. mates were higher than .80, demonstrating high levels of
internal consistency in all dimensions and in the samples
Results of both studies (see Table 4).
Descriptive information of the measurement instruments
Table 2 presents information on the means and standard Evidence of factorial invariance
deviations of the EBEA items and the mean BAI and The results of the fit indexes on the analysis by sex are
SPS scores separated by sex in each sample. presented in Table 5 (study 1). As can be seen, CFI and
Table 2 Descriptive information of the measurement instruments
Brief Acculturation Stress Scale (EBEA) E1 COL E2 COL E2 PER
M, ME (SD) F, ME (SD) M, ME (SD) F, ME (SD) M, ME (SD) F, ME (SD)
Preparation and departure from country of origin (PSP) 3.33 (1.02) 3.49 (1.02) 3.26 (1.16) 3.41 (1.15) 2.93 (1.12) 3.53 (1.04)
1. Prepare to leave your country. 3.21 (1.31) 3.30 (1.29) 3.08 (1.46) 3.26 (1.53) 2.72 (1.37) 3.40 (1.42)
2. Get the money to leave. 3.16 (1.36) 3.40 (1.36) 3.17 (1.58) 3.21 (1.57) 2.76 (1.46) 3.26 (1.47)
3. Leave your country. 3.31 (1.35) 3.50 (1.34) 3.09 (1.56) 3.25 (1.58) 2.84 (1.37) 3.54 (1.39)
4. Moving from your country to Chile. 3.35 (1.27) 3.44 (1.34) 3.22 (1.58) 3.34 (1.54) 3.08 (1.47) 3.48 (1.33)
5. Having to be separated from your family. 3.64 (1.26) 3.86 (1.30) 3.81 (1.36) 4.08 (1.31) 3.29 (1.53) 3.93 (1.23)
6. Stop seeing friends. 3.23 (1.29) 3.23 (1.37) 3.19 (1.48) 3.45 (1.49) 2.89 (1.32) 3.48 (1.33)
Socioeconomic concerns (PES) 3.32 (1.12) 3.42 (1.15) 3.45 (1.18) 3.49 (1.21) 2.99 (1.17) 3.61 (1.18)
1. Cover your basic needs. 3.33 (1.26) 3.44 (1.33) 3.66 (1.37) 3.56 (1.38) 3.12 (1.39) 3.70 (1.28)
2. Find a place to live. 3.15 (1.28) 3.28 (1.37) 3.33 (1.52) 3.42 (1.48) 2.94 (1.41) 3.52 (1.39)
3. Find a job. 3.35 (1.32) 3.42 (1.34) 3.33 (1.43) 3.42 (1.42) 2.92 (1.43) 3.44 (1.44)
4. Stabilise economically. 3.37 (1.26) 3.49 (1.26) 3.55 (1.35) 3.51 (1.40) 3.11 (1.27) 3.70 (1.37)
Adaptation to the recipient society (ASR) 2.42 (1.16) 2.37 (1.21) 2.11 (1.03) 2.10 (1.06) 2.28 (1.15) 2.37 (1.03)
1. Adapt to Chilean’s way of speaking. 2.59 (1.34) 2.66 (1.38) 2.31 (1.32) 2.33 (1.34) 2.34 (1.31) 2.51 (1.40)
2. Initiate contact with the neighbours. 2.43 (1.29) 2.37 (1.38) 2.23 (1.32) 2.16 (1.34) 2.25 (1.26) 2.43 (1.31)
3. Make friends. 2.41 (1.29) 2.29 (1.36) 2.09 (1.29) 1.96 (1.26) 2.29 (1.29) 2.27 (1.19)
4. Establish relationships with the people you work with. 2.33 (1.30) 2.17 (1.33) 2.06 (1.28) 1.88 (1.27) 2.22 (1.36) 2.19 (1.26)
Other measures
Beck’s Anxiety Inventory (BAI) 0.50 (0.57) 0.47 (0.53)
Psychological health (SPS) 3.67 (0.60) 3.57 (0.60) 3.42 (0.54) 3.26 (0.55)
E1 study 1, E2 study 2, COL Colombian sample, PER Peruvian sample, M male, F female, ME mean, SD standard deviation, EBEA Acculturation Stress Brief Scale, PSP
preparation and departure from the country of origin, PSE socioeconomic concerns, ASR adaptation to the receiving society
Urzúa et al. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica            (2021) 34:3 Page 6 of 10
Table 3 Global adjustment indicators of the EBEA measurement models
Number of Study Par χ2 DF p CFI TLI RMSEA RMSEA IC 90%
factors and Lower Upper
sample
Model of 1 factor E1 COL 70 4076.291 77 .00 .825 .793 .239 .233 .245
Model of 3 factors E1 COL 73 533.037 74 .00 .980 .975 .083 .076 .089
Model of 1 factor E2 COL 70 1725.995 77 .00 .733 .685 .223 .214 .232
Model of 3 factors E2 COL 73 223.692 74 .00 .976 .970 .069 .058 .079
Model of 1 factor E2 PER 70 1542.098 .77 .00 .836 .806 .221 .211 .230
Model of 3 factors E2 PER 73 238.993 74 .00 .982 .977 .076 .065 .086
E1 study 1, E2 study 2, COL Colombian sample, PER Peruvian sample, EBEA Brief Acculturative Stress Scale, Par number of parameters in the model, χ2 chi-square,
DF degrees of freedom, CFI comparative fit index, TLI Tucker-Lewis Index, RMSEA root mean square error of approximation
RMSEA fit indexes do not show statistically significant Again, EBEA shows an excellent fit, without statistically
differences in fit between metric or scalar model, com- significant differences being detected between the differ-
pared with configural model. These results show that ent levels of invariance. These results show that the
the scores for each of the dimensions of EBEA are scores of the different dimensions are equivalent be-
equivalent between men and women. tween migrants from Colombia and Peru.
Table 6 shows the results of measurement invariance In summary, the results of the factorial invariance ana-
testing, between Colombians and Peruvians (study 2). lyses of both studies show that it can be assumed
Table 4 Standardised factorial saturations and reliability estimates (Cronbach’s alpha and omega coefficient) of the EBEA in both
samples
Brief Acculturation Stress Scale (EBEA) E1 COL E2 COL E2 PER
PSP PSE ASR PSP PSE ASR PSP PSE ASR
Preparation and departure from country of origin (PSP)
1. Prepare to leave your country. .81* .84* 85*
2. Get the money to leave. .76* .77* 77*
3. Leave your country. .85* .90* 90*
4. Moving from your country to Chile. .81* .84* 84*
5. Having to be separated from your family. .76* .79* 79*
6. Stop seeing friends. .72* .67* 67*
Socioeconomic concerns (PES)
1. Cover your basic needs. .88* .85* 85*
2. Find a place to live. .89* .86* 86*
3. Find a job. .87* .90* 90*
4. Stabilise economically. .86* .86* 87*
Adaptation to the recipient society (ASR)
1. Adapt to Chilean’s way of speaking. .84* .75* 76*
2. Initiate contact with the neighbours. .92* .89* 89*
3. Make friends. .95* .90* 90*
4. Establish relationships with the people you work with. .89* .87* 87*
Covariate factors
Socioeconomic concerns (PES) .66* .42* .74*
Adaptation to the recipient society (ASR) .43* .54* .28* .42* .48* .53*
Reliability estimates
Alpha (α) .87 .90 .92 .86 .86 .83 .88 .89 .86
Omega (ω) .87 .90 .92 .86 .86 .83 .88 .89 .86
E1 study 1, E2 study 2, COL Colombian sample, PER Peruvian sample, EBEA Acculturation Stress Brief Scale, PSP preparation and departure from the country of
origin, PSE socioeconomic concerns, ASR adaptation to the receiving society
*p < .001
Urzúa et al. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica            (2021) 34:3 Page 7 of 10
Table 5 Goodness-of-fit indexes of nested model of factor invariance analysis according to sex
χ2 DF p RMSEA CFI Δχ2 ΔDF Δp ΔRMSEA ΔCFI
Configural 637.525 173 .000 .077 .980
Metric 581.898 187 .000 .068 .983 13.042 14 .523 − .009 .003
Scalar 559.783 201 .000 .063 .984 30.297 14 .006 − .014 .004
measurement equivalence between men and women origin, (2) stress produced by socioeconomic concerns in
(study 1), and between people from Colombia and Peru the host country, and (3) typical tensions of adaptation to
living in Chile (study 2). sociocultural changes or Chilean society. Likewise, accord-
ing to Chen (2007) invariance testing suggested standards,
Evidence of nomological validity the results show that the model of three factors of the
In order to present evidence of nomological validity, EBEA is equivalent between men and women, as well as
structural equation models (M1, M2, and M3) were esti- between Colombians and Peruvians, which suggests that
mated, and the dimensions of the EBEA with the BAI comparisons between groups based on these variables (sex
(study 1: M1) and the SPS (study 2: M2, Colombian and home country) are possible to evaluate.
sample; M3, Peruvian sample). These dimensions were consistent with those reported
Table 7 shows the global adjustment indicators of in the literature on stress-related factors (Bekteshi &
models M1, M2, and M3. The estimated goodness-of-fit Kang, 2020). Although acculturation is a process immi-
indexes of the models indicate that they were good rep- grants experience once they arrive in the host country,
resentations of the observed relationships. the stress it can cause manifests itself from the moment
Finally, Table 8 shows the relations between the di- the change of country is planned (Ugalde-Watson et al.,
mensions of the EBEA with the BAI (study 1) and the 2011). Thinking about how to adapt to the new culture,
SPS (study 2). In study 1, the BAI presented positive cor- how to generate new social networks, and how to main-
relations of small magnitudes (r > .10) (Cohen, 1988) tain a favourable economic status in the new country,
with the three dimensions of the EBEA: preparation and leaving behind one’s culture, family, and loved ones, and
departure from the country of origin (ρ = .117), socio- preparing to leave is one of the most stressful stages of
economic concerns (ρ = .105), and adaptation to the re- acculturation (Ugalde-Watson et al., 2011; Urzúa,
ceiving society (ρ = .200). In study 2, the SPS presented Basabe, et al., 2017). However, meeting basic needs, find-
negative correlations of small magnitudes (r > .10) with ing work, and a place to live are part of the socioeco-
the three dimensions of the EBEA in both samples (see nomic concerns that affect the migrant population the
Table 8). most (Bekteshi & Kang, 2020; Ugalde-Watson et al.,
2011), because many times people migrate without suffi-
Discussion cient support networks in the host country (de Haymes,
This article aimed to provide the first confirmed evi- Martone, Muñoz, & Grossman, 2011). From this point
dence of the validity and reliability of the scores from on, the migrant is often left in a more vulnerable social
the abbreviated measure of acculturation stress in mi- position and with few opportunities to get a stable job to
grant populations. These findings are beneficial for rapid maintain the personal-family economy as opposed to
screening of the effects of acculturation stress in migrant local residents (Urzúa et al., 2016). Finally, cultural dif-
populations. ferences may strain the process of sociocultural adapta-
To provide evidence of the scores’ validity, we exam- tion, as the new environment will demand adaptation
ined the factorial structure of the scale and the degree of experiences that may exceed people’s resources and cap-
relationship, with other variables theoretically related to acities to cope with these demands (Bekteshi & Kang,
anxiety and psychological health in two different studies. 2020; Urzúa et al., 2016). Some authors have shown that
The results in both studies indicated the scale presents a the perception of large cultural differences correlates
factorial structure of three dimensions: (1) stress derived with higher levels of acculturation stress among mi-
from preparation and departure from the country of grants (Urzúa, Basabe, et al., 2017).
Table 6 Goodness-of-fit indexes of nested model of factor invariance analysis according to home country
χ2 DF p RMSEA CFI Δχ2 ΔDF Δp ΔRMSEA ΔCFI
Configural 504.480 173 .000 .068 .978
Metric 515.856 187 .000 .065 .979 30.543 14 .006 − .003 .001
Scalar 534.083 201 .000 .063 .978 43.845 14 .000 − .005 .000
Urzúa et al. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica            (2021) 34:3 Page 8 of 10
Table 7 Global adjustment indicators for models M1, M2, and relationships of the variables used in the studies. Second,
M3 given the difficulty of obtaining a valid sample universe,
Models Par χ2 DF p CFI TLI RMSEA RMSEA IC 90% the sample was non-probabilistic; therefore, the results
Lower Upper could not reflect with certainty the experiences of mi-
M1 160 1788.810 554 .00 .975 .973 .049 .047 .052 grants who do not go to places with a common migrant
M2 106 387.148 164 .00 .968 .963 .056 .049 .063 population, like the places where they were surveyed. Fi-
nally, the migrants who participated in this study were
M3 106 423.231 164 .00 .974 .970 .063 .056 .071
from only two Latin American countries (Colombia and
M1 model 1, M2 model 2, M3 model 3, Par number of model parameters, χ2
chi-square, DF degrees of freedom, CFI comparative fit index, TLI Tucker-Lewis Peru) and resided in three cities in Chile (Arica, Antofa-
Index, RMSEA root mean square error of approximation gasta, and Santiago), so it is necessary to continue ex-
ploring the behaviour of the scale among migrants from
Regarding its nomological validity, study 1 indicated other Spanish-speaking nations. Despite this, it was
that acculturation stress was positively related to the Co- noted that another advantage of having a valid instru-
lumbian’s anxiety levels. Study 2 indicated that the ment is being able to open other lines of study, such as
higher the levels of acculturation stress, the lower the the mediating effect of residence time, or other variables,
scores on the psychological health scale answered by in the relationship between acculturation stress and
both Colombians and Peruvians. Although the correla- some variables of psychological health or well-being.
tions with the other instruments were small, some au-
thors noted there were cases where the relationships
between dimensions could have important consequences Conclusions
if they refer to recurrent events over time (Funder & The EBEA managed to adequately represent its structure
Ozer, 2019). In the case of both studies, perceiving con- of three latent factors and demonstrated valid and reli-
stant stress from living in a new culture could accumu- able scores for its use in migrant populations equivalent
late seemingly small anxious effects, but have important to those of the samples examined in the present study.
implications for the psychological health, well-being, and In addition, EBEA demonstrated factor invariance for
quality of life of immigrants in Chile. Additionally, the the comparison of scores between groups of male and
low magnitude of the correlations can be interpreted as female, and Colombians and Peruvians. Finally, the
an indicator that they were linked constructs, but theor- EBEA presented a measure that offered a fast and useful
etically different. This provides evidence that accultur- screening tool for researchers who needed a brief meas-
ation stress is a type of stress specific to the migratory ure for investigations in the area. Although it is neces-
context. sary to continue exploring the psychometric properties
For internal consistency, the alpha and omega coeffi- of the scale among other migrant groups, actually EBEA
cients were calculated for each of the scale dimensions is a tool that can contribute to the work of education,
in each study sample. The coefficients estimated in all prevention, and intervention in the field of general
the analyses were excellent, indicating that the scores on health and migrants’ mental health.
the abbreviated acculturation stress scale are reliable.
These results caught our attention because, in general, Abbreviations
short scales tend to present less reliable results than COVID-19: Coronavirus disease; EBEA: Escala Breve para la Evaluación del
Estrés por Aculturación, Brief Scale of Stress by Acculturation; BAI: Beck
scales with a greater number of items. Anxiety Inventory; SPS: Psychological health; WLSMV: Weighted least square
As this was the first approach to the construction of a mean and variance; CFI: Comparative fit index; TLI: Tucker-Lewis Index;
new instrument, some limitations of the study should be RMSEA: Root mean square error of approximation; PSP: Preparation and
departure from the country of origin; PES: Socioeconomic concerns;
mentioned. First, the research was of a transversal na- ASR: Adaptation to the recipient society; E1: Study 1; E2: Study 2
ture, so no causalities can be assumed between the
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Table 8 Standardised poly-correlation matrix
Variables PSP PSE ASR
Authors’ contributions
Study 1 BAI .117* .105* .200** AU, DH, AC, and VS contributed to the conception and design of the work;
Study 2 SPS COL − .246** − .246** − .193** the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data; and the drafts and
revision of the work. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
SPS PER − .275** − .272** − .125*
COL Colombian sample, PER Peruvian sample, BAI Beck’s Anxiety Inventory, SPS
psychological health, PSP preparation and departure from the country of Funding
origin, PSE socioeconomic concerns, ASR adaptation to the recipient society This study was funded by the National Research and Development Agency
*p < .01 of the Government of Chile (ANID) through FONDECYT 1180315, which had
**p < .001 no influence on the writing of this article.
Urzúa et al. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica            (2021) 34:3 Page 9 of 10
Availability of data and materials Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement
The data used and analysed during the current study are not publicly invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14(3), 464–504. https://doi.org/10.
available due ethics privacy of participants but are available from the 1080/10705510701301834.
corresponding author on reasonable request. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, (2nd ed., ).
Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
de Haymes, M., Martone, J., Muñoz, L., & Grossman, S. (2011). Family cohesion
Competing interests and social support: Protective factors for acculturation stress among low-
The authors declare that they have no competing interests. acculturated Mexican migrants. Journal of Poverty, 15(4), 403–426. https://doi.
org/10.1080/10875549.2011.615608.
Author details Funder, D. C., & Ozer, D. J. (2019). Evaluating effect size in psychological research:
1Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Avda. Angamos, 0610 Sense and nonsense. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological
Antofagasta, Chile. 2Instituto de Alta investigación, Universidad de Tarapacá, Science, 2(2), 156–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245919847202.
Arica, Chile. 3Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas, Universidad de Costa Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1995). Evaluating model fit. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.),
Rica, San José, Costa Rica. Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications, (pp. 76–99).
New York: Sage Publications, Inc..
Received: 30 September 2020 Accepted: 20 December 2020 Internacional Organization for Migration (2020). Portal de datos mundiales sobre la
migración. Berlin: Datos migratorios en América del Sur https://
migrationdataportal.org/es/regional-data-overview/datos-migratorios-en-
america-del-sur#tendencias-actuales.
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