Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
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Tropical Cyclone Research and Review 13 (2024) 196–207
www.keaipublishing.com/tcrr
Assessing the impact of tropical cyclones on economic sectors
in Costa Rica, Central America

Adolfo Quesada-Román 1,*, Hugo G. Hidalgo 2,3,4, Eric J. Alfaro 2,3,4,5

1 Laboratorio de Geografía Física, Escuela de Geografía, Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica
2Centro de Investigaciones Geofísicas (CIGEFI), Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica

3Escuela de Física, Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica
4Centro de Investigaci�on en Matemática Pura y Aplicada (CIMPA), Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica

5Centro de Investigaci�on en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología (CIMAR), Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica

Available online 4 September 2024
Abstract
Tropical cyclones (TC) pose a persistent natural hazard to Costa Rica. Exposure to natural hazards, such as mass movements and floods, is
compounded by a growing urban population and inadequate land use planning. This study conducted a comprehensive analysis of the economic
impacts of TC of Costa Rica from Hurricane Joan in 1988 to Hurricane Eta in 2020, assessing the impact by municipality and economic sector
using baseline information of the Ministry of National Planning and Economic Policy. According to the study, road infrastructure (933.8 US
million), agriculture (280.5 US million), river rehabilitation (153.96 US million), housing 98.26 (US million), and health (81.74 US million) were
among the sectors most severely affected by TC over the past 30 years. The Pacific basin municipalities in Costa Rica were found to be the most
vulnerable, primarily due to the indirect impacts of TC. The study's results offer useful information on the economic sectors and municipalities that
are most exposed from TC in Costa Rica and provide a replicable methodology for other regions and countries facing similar tropical phenomena.
© 2024 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier on behalf of KeAi and The Shanghai Typhoon Institute of China Meteorological
Administration. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Keywords: Tropical cyclones; Natural hazards; Economic impacts; Municipality impact; Developing countries; Central America
1. Introduction

Tropical cyclones (TC) are powerful weather systems that
can cause widespread destruction and loss of life in coastal
regions along low latitudes. They form over warm ocean wa-
ters and are characterized by high winds, heavy continuous
rain, and storm surges (Klotzbach et al., 2022). Among the
most affect areas along low latitudes by TC includes the
tropical Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Das et al., 2021; Pinos
and Quesada-Román, 2021; Bandyopadhyay et al., 2023), the
Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the Indian Ocean
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: adolfo.quesadaroman@ucr.ac.cr (A. Quesada-Román).
Peer review under the responsibility of Shanghai Typhoon Institute of

China Meteorology Administration.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcrr.2024.08.001
2225-6032/© 2024 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier on behalf of KeAi
This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.or
(Bhatia et al., 2019; Quesada-Román, 2024a; 2024b). TC can
cause severe damage to infrastructure, homes, and businesses,
disrupt transportation systems, and result in widespread power
outages (Noy, 2016). It is crucial for residents of these areas to
stay informed and prepare for the potential impact of a TC by
following evacuation orders and having emergency plans in
place (Robertson et al., 2020).

Under-developed countries are disproportionately affected
by the devastating impacts of TC, which can have far-reaching
and long-lasting consequences on their communities, econo-
mies, and ecosystems (Adam and Bevan, 2020). The lack of
resources and infrastructure to prepare for and respond to TC
exacerbates the impact. Many under-developed countries are in
coastal areas, which are particularly exposed to the high winds
and storm surges associated with TC (May et al., 2013; Nadal-
Caraballo et al., 2020). Developing countries face more acute
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A. Quesada-Román, H.G. Hidalgo and E.J. Alfaro Tropical Cyclone Research and Review 13 (2024) 196–207
impacts due to floods than the developed world (Benito et al.,
2021; Biswas and Pani, 2021; Quesada-Román, 2022a). In fact,
floods are compounding the risk of TC, exacerbating their
economic and social impacts on vulnerable communities
(Ghosh et al., 2023). Moreover, mass movement processes are
common during the influence of cyclones producing huge
impacts (Quesada-Román et al., 2019; Geertsema and
Alcántara-Ayala, 2023). In addition, under-developed coun-
tries often have limited access to healthcare and resources in
general, making it difficult for residents to recover from the
damage caused by these storms causing residual vulnerabilities
(Sharifi et al., 2021). The lack of resources and capacity to
adapt to the changing climate also means that under-developed
countries are more likely to experience repeated, and increas-
ingly severe, impacts from TC in the future (Noy, 2009).

Recent studies have revealed an increasing frequency of
disturbances in regions historically situated on the periphery of
tropical cyclone activity (Altman et al., 2018). According to
projections, the probability of intense TC worldwide is expected
to more than double (Bloemendaal et al., 2022). The increasing
warmth of the planet will also result in a progressive expansion
of the destructive reach of cyclones inland (Li and Chakraborty,
2020). Furthermore, global tropical storm damage is projected to
increase by approximately 50% by 2070 (Gettelman et al.,
2018). These phenomena will likely have negative impacts on
multiple sectors in the coming years (Kunze, 2021). The degree
of vulnerability of different economic sectors to the impacts of
TC will depend on their unique socioeconomic, cultural, and
developmental characteristics (Webersik et al., 2010; Zhou and
Zhang, 2021; Roy et al., 2022).

TC are a recurrent hydrometeorological hazard in Costa
Rica, causing widespread destruction and economic losses
(Hsiang, 2010; Quesada-Román et al., 2022; Krichene et al.,
2023). The agricultural sector, one of the main drivers of the
region's economy, is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of
these events (Shannon and Motha, 2015; Hu et al., 2023).
Crops such as coffee, bananas, and sugar cane are highly
susceptible to strong winds and heavy continuous rainfall,
leading to significant crop loss and reduced yields (Imbach
et al., 2017; Juárez-Torres and Puigvert, 2021). The tourism
industry, one of the major contributors to the economy of Costa
Rica, is also affected by these events as natural attractions and
infrastructure are damaged, leading to a decline in visitor
numbers (Benavides-Vindas, 2020; Quesada-Román and
Pérez-Umaña, 2020). The fishing industry can also suffer
because of rough seas and the destruction of coastal habitats
(Reyer et al., 2017). The impacts of TC are far-reaching,
affecting not only the local economies, but also the well-
being of the populations of Costa Rica.

In the past few decades, studies have shown that the fre-
quency and impact of TC in Costa Rica have been on an up-
ward trend (Hidalgo et al., 2020; 2022). However, there is a
lack of comprehensive analysis of their differential impact on
economic sectors and municipalities. Furthermore, the intrinsic
factors that contribute to their risk conditions have yet to be
fully understood. Our study is also motivated by climate
change scenarios that will impact greater flooding and
197
landslides in the most important basins of Costa Rica in the
coming decades (Hidalgo et al., 2024). This study aims to
address these gaps in knowledge by hypothesizing that TC
impact differently the economic sectors of the most affected
municipalities in Costa Rica, as local government political
units. The research will examine the spatiotemporal trends of
municipal economic losses by sector due to TC from 1988 to
2020. This study can serve as a valuable example for other
countries and regions commonly affected by TC or extraordi-
nary precipitation events, providing insight into the approach
and methods used to analyze their impact. Global readers will
find this study valuable as it analyzes the economic impacts of
TC, relevant to many world regions, addressing current issues
such as urban growth and inadequate land use planning crucial
for disaster management and climate resilience.

2. Material and methods
2.1. Geographical context
Costa Rica is a country in southern Central America that lies
between Nicaragua and Panama, covering a terrestrial area of
51,100 km2 and located between 8◦ and 11◦ North Latitude and
82◦ and 86◦ West Longitude. The country sits on four tectonic
plates, namely the Cocos, Nazca, Caribbean, and Panama
microplate (Alvarado et al., 2017). Costa Rica's tectonic ac-
tivity is shaped by various processes, including subduction
between the Cocos and Caribbean plates, the arrival of the
Cocos volcanic submarine cordillera, the Central Costa Rican
Deformed Belt, the Northern and Southern Panama Fault
Systems, and local faulting, as stated in a study by Alvarado
et al. (2017). Furthermore, the country can be divided into
three morphotectonic units, which are the forearc, plutonic/
volcanic front, and backarc, as reported by Hidalgo-Leiva et al.
(2023). The forearc comprises the Pacific basin, with its rugged
topography and catchments controlled by regional faulting, and
dates back to the Cretaceous to Quaternary periods (Alvarado
and Cárdenes, 2016; Arroyo-Solórzano et al., 2021). The vol-
canic/plutonic front encompasses the country's mountain and
volcanic systems that run primarily from NW to SE and date
back to the Tertiary and Quaternary. The backarc, constituting
the lowlands of the Caribbean basin, is a result of depositional
processes mainly from the Tertiary and Quaternary periods
(Quesada-Román and Pérez-Briceño, 2019; Quesada-Román,
2021a).

As reported by Durán-Quesada et al. (2020) and Saenz
et al., 2023, Costa Rica is a country located between the
Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, making it highly exposed
to various meteorological phenomena, such as the Intertropical
Convergence Zone, El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), cold
fronts, trade winds, and TC. The dry season on the Pacific coast
of the country, as noted by Mendez et al., 2022 and Alfaro
(2002), lasts for 3–5 months, starting from the end of the
boreal autumn to the beginning of the spring. The Pacific basin
generally receives less than 3000 mm of rainfall annually,
while the Caribbean basin experiences over 4000 mm annually,
according to Birkel et al. (2022).



A. Quesada-Román, H.G. Hidalgo and E.J. Alfaro Tropical Cyclone Research and Review 13 (2024) 196–207
Costa Rica is comprised of seven provinces and 82 mu-
nicipalities (see details in Supplementary Material Table S1).
According to Van Lidth de Jeude et al., 2016, Costa Rica has a
population of around 5 million people, with the majority
(~75%) living in urban areas. The Greater Metropolitan Area
(GAM) is home to most of the urban population, accounting
for 70% of the total population despite occupying only 14% of
the country's territory. The impact of TC, such as landslides
and floods, has been assessed and varies across each munici-
pality, resulting in a hazard asymmetry throughout the country
(Quesada-Román, 2021b; Quesada-Román, 2022).
2.2. Tropical cyclones affecting Costa Rica
TC can have significant impacts on the people and economy
of Costa Rica (Alfaro et al., 2010; Alfaro & Quesada, 2010;
Hidalgo et al., 2020). As shown in Fig. 1, TC generally orig-
inate over the tropical North Atlantic Ocean or the Caribbean
Sea before moving towards Central America. Some TC also
occur in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. The period between
August and October experiences a higher occurrence of TC in
the Caribbean Sea near Central America (Alfaro et al. 2010;
Alfaro and Quesada 2010) and is also the quarter in which
more reports of impacts due to TC are reported on the Costa
Rican Pacific Slope (Alfaro and Pérez Briceño, 2014). Once
they reach the coast, they can bring strong winds, heavy
rainfall, and dangerous storm surges that can cause flooding
Fig. 1. Reported TC categories which mainly affected Costa Rica between 1988 an
depressions (HURDAT NOAA: https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/Data_Storm

198
and landslides (Hidalgo et al., 2022). In some cases, TC can
cause widespread damage and disrupt essential infrastructure,
such as roads, bridges, and power networks (Quesada-Román,
2023). In terms of climatology, the Pacific basin of Costa Rica
is more prone to TC impacts compared to the Caribbean side of
the country. When TC occur in the Caribbean or Atlantic basin,
a critical configuration near the Gulf of Honduras can increase
the probability of extreme precipitation and indirect effects in
the southern countries of the isthmus, namely Costa Rica and
Panama (Hidalgo et al., 2020). According to Hidalgo et al.
(2022), it is possible that the transportation of humidity via
induced air circulation over the isthmus is the primary factor
responsible for the high likelihood of extreme precipitation on
the Pacific slope of Central America. This process is similar to
the mechanism described by Durán-Quesada et al. (2017). The
local term for low level westerly winds is “synoptic westerlies”
or “oestes sinópticos" in Spanish, as noted by Muñoz et al.
(2002). These winds are associated with the occurrence of
“temporales” which are defined as periods of continuous
stratiform rainfall lasting one or several days, according to
Amador et al. (2006). The Eastern Tropical Pacific region ex-
periences a high level of atmospheric instability and oceanic
heat content, which can contribute to the formation of TC
(Mendez et al., 2020) that can also cause indirect effects over
the Costa Rican Pacific slope (Hidalgo et al. 2022).

In the 1980s, Hurricane Joan, which formed over the
Atlantic Ocean in 1988, made landfall in Nicaragua and
d 2020, in parenthesis the number of hurricanes, tropical storms, and tropical
.html).

https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/Data_Storm.html


A. Quesada-Román, H.G. Hidalgo and E.J. Alfaro Tropical Cyclone Research and Review 13 (2024) 196–207
traveled through the isthmus, causing widespread damage and
flooding totaling 141 US million (Walker et al., 1991). Simi-
larly, in the 1990s, Hurricane Cesar hit Nicaragua in 1996,
causing also widespread flooding and mass movements in
Costa Rica summing 186 US million (Pasch and Avila, 1999).
Hurricane Mitch caused severe floods and landslides in Costa
Rica in 1998, leading to deaths and significant economic
damage in the agriculture and road infrastructure sectors with
124 US million in losses (Rodriguez and Saenz, 1999). In the
2000s, Hurricane Alma, which formed over the Pacific Ocean,
impacted Costa Rica in 2008 causing significant damage and
losses of 29 US million (Blake and Pasch, 2009). In recent
years, the country has been affected by several significant
storms, including Hurricane Otto in 2016 with 331 US million
(Maldonado et al., 2020), Tropical Storm Nate in 2017 with
606 US million, and Hurricane Eta in 2020 summing 216 US
million (Quesada-Román, 2021c). The socioeconomic impacts
of these storms can be severe, causing damage to property and
infrastructure, they can also disrupt essential services and
commerce (Orozco-Montoya et al., 2022). For example, Hur-
ricane Otto in 2016 resulted in losses estimated at 331 US
million (Quesada-Román et al., 2019; Quesada-Román and
Villalobos-Chacón, 2020). The recovery costs associated with
these storms can be high and can take several years to fully
recover.
2.3. Data processing and analysis
Fig. 2. Data processing and analysis schematic plot.
This study used official information by MIDEPLAN
(Ministry of National Planning and Economic Policy, 2019):
https://www.mideplan.go.cr/, and an update of the losses of
Hurricane Eta in 2020. There were 16 TC that had National
Emergency Declaration by the National Commission for Risk
Prevention and Emergency Attention (CNE) of Costa Rica and
economically affected Costa Rica between 1988 and 2020. In
order to analyze the economic impact of TC on municipalities,
data on municipal economic losses were extracted for each
event. These losses were calculated by MIDEPLAN in colones
(Costa Rican currency) and were immediately converted to
2015 US dollars, which is why we used that year. The most
affected municipalities were identified based on the severity of
the losses incurred. Conditions that make these municipalities
more at risk include their location in coastal or flood-prone
areas, poor infrastructure, and limited resources to invest in
disaster preparedness and response were considered. These
factors increased the vulnerability of these municipalities to the
impacts of TC, leading to significant economic losses. Un-
derstanding the economic impact of TC on specific munici-
palities can help to inform decision-making regarding disaster
risk reduction and preparedness strategies, with the goal of
reducing the potential consequences of these events in the
future. The used economic sectors were previously categorized
by MIDEPLAN. We did not change these sectors and
concentrated our analysis in the most influential economic
sectors. Finally, the determined economic sectors were
sewerage, agriculture, education, river rehabilitation, health,
road infrastructure, and housing (Fig. 2). Other economic
199
sectors included in specific years but which its economic rep-
resentation was negligible and not included were business,
environment (included in river rehabilitation), energy and
telecommunications, and emergency attention. The total eco-
nomic losses by municipality were mapped using ArcGIS 10.3.
2.4. Statistical analysis
We employed a Pearson correlation equation (Wikle et al.,
2019) and a Generalized Linear Model (GLM; Dobson and
Barnett, 2018) to investigate the relationships between the
economic impacts of TC and various environmental and so-
cioeconomic parameters for each municipality. The environ-
mental parameters considered were the percentage of flood-
prone hazard areas (FHZ) at a 1:50,000 scale determined by
the National Commission for Risk Prevention and Emergency
Attention (CNE) of Costa Rica, the municipal slope (SLP),
rainfall intensity-duration-frequency curves for every five years
(TR5; Rojas-Morales, 2011; Vargas-Valverde, 2017), and the
percentage of non-forested areas (NFA). We also included so-
cioeconomic parameters such as 2022 population density pro-
jection (PD), mean road density (RD) from the National
Territorial Information System (SNIT – Sistema Nacional de
Información Territorial, 2023), and the social development
index (SDI) from MIDEPLAN (2017) that is composed of 14
variables of economic, public health, educational, security, and
civic participation parameters. It is similar but more detailed in
spatial resolution than the Human Development Index present
worldwide. To evaluate the Total losses by municipality (T)
model, we used an Akaike Information Criterion (AIC;
Anderson and Burnham, 2004) to perform a backward selection
and compare the null hypothesis (i.e., T 1) against the full
(T ~ DIS + PD + SDI + SLP + TR5+FHZ + NFA + RD) and

https://www.mideplan.go.cr/


Fig. 3. Total economic losses (2015 USD million) due to TC by municipalities in Costa Rica. To clarify the location of specific municipalities mentioned in the text,
see details in Supplementary material (Fig. S2).

A. Quesada-Román, H.G. Hidalgo and E.J. Alfaro Tropical Cyclone Research and Review 13 (2024) 196–207
alternative (T ~ DIS + SDI + RD) models. All covariates were
standardized using a z-score.

3. Results
3.1. Major impacted municipalities by tropical cyclones
The most suitable explanation for T is found in the interplay
of several factors (Table 1), including disaster events that
occurred between 1970 and 2020 (DIS), the social develop-
ment index (SDI), and the density of roads (RD). TC can have
severe impacts on the inhabitants and infrastructure of
Table 1
Parameters used to model the economic impacts of TC by municipality. AIC:
3079.6. Pr(>jzj) is the probable finding of the observed Z-ratio by a critical
point of jzj in the normal distribution of Z. Null deviance: 1.3159e+17 on 81
degrees of freedom. Residual deviance: 8.6903e+16 on 78 degrees of freedom.
Signif. Codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1

Model terms Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)

(Intercept) 29,320,694 15,343,192 1.911 0.05968 .

DIS 101,843 31,886 3.194 0.00202 **
SDI 92,551,080 18,608,360 −4.974 3.82e-06 ***
RD 63,432,128 28,836,925 2.200 0.03079 *

200
municipalities in Costa Rica. The study findings indicates that
the most affected municipalities are those with more historical
records of disasters, medium-low levels of social development,
and medium-high road densities (Fig. 4). These characteristics
appear to exacerbate the negative consequences of TC,
Fig. 4. Relationships between disaster events (1970–2021) and total economic
losses by TC (2015 USD million) distributed with road density by
municipalities.



A. Quesada-Román, H.G. Hidalgo and E.J. Alfaro Tropical Cyclone Research and Review 13 (2024) 196–207
resulting in increased damage and loss. There is a negative
relationship between the Social Development Index and the
total economic losses by TC (Fig. 5). The most affected mu-
nicipalities have medium to high road densities (as an exposure
factor) except by Desamparados in the GAM, but they present
high vulnerability (low SDI).

Historical disaster records serve as an indicator of the
municipality's vulnerability to future events, and the presence
of a history of disasters can result in more destruction and loss
of life when a new event occurs. These municipalities are
mostly urban such as San José, Desamparados, Alajuela, Car-
tago, Heredia, and other large peri urban and rural municipal-
ities such as San Carlos, Puntarenas, Turrialba, and Pérez
Zeledón. On the other hand, low levels of social development,
as indicated by the social development index, often result in a
lack of resources and preparedness, exacerbating the effects of
the disaster. TC can have severe impacts on the inhabitants and
infrastructure of municipalities in Costa Rica, particularly in
the Pacific basin. In terms of US millions in economic losses
from 1988 to 2020, seventeen out of the first twenty most
affected municipalities by TC are in the Pacific basin. More-
over, 83% of all the reported economic impacts by TC were in
the Pacific basin municipalities. The study findings indicates
that the most affected municipalities by these events in the
Pacific basin are those with limited economic opportunities,
lower levels of development, and poor quality of education.
This result is also supported with the findings of Alfaro et al.
(2010). Furthermore, these municipalities are often located
far from the main cities and opportunities for health, public
services, and education in Costa Rica. Municipalities such as
Osa, Buenos Aires, Pérez Zeledón, Corredores, Parrita, and
Quepos are the most affected units (Fig. 3). The municipality of
Upala, located in the Northern Region of Costa Rica, is one of
the most affected areas by TC (see also Alfaro et al., 2018).
This is due, in part, to the direct impact of Hurricane Otto in
2016 (Maldonado et al. 2020), which caused approximately 75
million US dollars in losses. The effects of this disaster high-
light the vulnerability of the region to the impacts of TC.
Fig. 5. Relationships between Social Development Index and total economic
losses and TC (2015 USD million) distributed with road density by
municipalities.

201
Desamparados, a municipality located in the Greater
Metropolitan Area of Costa Rica, is one of the most affected
urban areas by TC, previously identified also by Alfaro et al.
(2010). This is due to its high road and population densities,
as well as its lower levels of social development compared to
surrounding municipalities. The high population density in
Desamparados and other urban areas can increase the disaster
risk and limit the ability of residents to evacuate in a timely
manner. Additionally, the high road density can cause signifi-
cant damage to transportation infrastructure, hindering recov-
ery efforts and exacerbating the economic impacts of the
disaster.
3.2. Main affected economic sectors by tropical cyclones
TC and hurricanes have had a significant impact on the
economy of Costa Rica, affecting different economic sectors to
varying degrees. According to this analysis, the main sectors
affected by TC in the country are road infrastructure, river
rehabilitation, agriculture, housing, and health (Table 2; Fig. 6).
Road infrastructure has been the most affected sector, ac-
counting for 58.56% of the total economic losses caused by
TC. This can be attributed to the damage caused to roads,
bridges, and other transportation systems, leading to disrup-
tions in transportation and commerce. The rehabilitation of
rivers has been another significant impact, with 14.83% of total
losses. TC often result in severe flooding and landslides,
leading to riverbank erosion and the need for river rehabilita-
tion. An interesting result of Table 1 is that indirect tropical
cycle effects account for an important quantity of the damage
costs, associated with the persistent continuous stratiform
rainfall of temporales on the Pacific slope, induced by the low-
pressure system in the Caribbean Sea.

Agriculture has also been affected, accounting for 10.61%
of total losses. This is due to the loss of crops, infrastructure
damage, and soil degradation caused by floods and landslides.
The housing sector has been impacted as well, accounting for
6% of total losses. This can be attributed to the damage caused
to homes, displacement of residents, and the need for tempo-
rary or permanent housing solutions. Health sector accounted
for 5.63% of total losses, this is due to the disruption of health
services, the need for emergency response, and the risk of
disease outbreaks. Other minor affected sectors are infrastruc-
ture, education, and sewerage, accounting for 0.82%, 1.31%,
and 2.22% of total losses, respectively.

4. Discussion
4.1. Local and regional socioeconomic impacts
Southern Pacific Region is the most affected area of Costa
Rica, comprising Osa, Buenos Aires, Pérez Zeledón, and
Corredores municipalities. The following affected region is the
Central Pacific with Parrita and Quepos municipalities. These
local governments have several socioeconomic disparities
(Royo, 2009; Hunt et al., 2014Hunt et al., 2015). These eco-
nomic limitations can exacerbate the negative consequences of



Table 2
Amounts of the economic sectors impacts in 2015 USD million by TC affecting Costa Rica between 1988 and 2020. Red values indicate the most affected economic
sector according to each TC.

Year Cyclone Health Infrastructure Education Sewerage Agricultural Rivers Road Infrastructure Housing Total (USD million) Percentage

1988 Joan 54.77 0.00 0.67 0.00 6.50 0.00 26.53 11.53 141.36 6.82

1993 Gert 2.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 35.73 0.00 55.09 6.51 8.5 0.41

1996 Cesar 11.64 0.31 5.08 1.44 5.63 9.54 60.25 6.11 186.26 8.99

1998 Mitch 12.21 0.00 0.72 1.90 38.81 1.63 36.57 8.17 124.75 6.02

2001 Michelle 0.00 0.00 1.26 1.29 9.77 0.00 87.68 0.00 25.28 1.22

2002 Lili 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.38 0.00 3.53 78.99 15.09 19.22 0.93

2005 Rita 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 16.18 28.70 38.00 17.11 25.5 1.23

2008 Alma 0.00 5.38 0.12 0.40 1.98 16.01 76.08 0.03 29.63 1.43

2008 DT16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 46.98 0.58 52.44 0.00 35.06 1.69

2008 Hannah 0.00 0.00 0.77 0.00 88.86 0.00 9.90 0.46 16.04 0.77

2010 Nicole 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.02 98.98 0.00 17.05 0.82

2010 Thomas 0.14 0.67 1.84 3.47 8.62 24.24 50.11 10.89 278.88 13.46

2011 DT12 0.00 0.00 0.00 11.60 0.45 4.53 73.46 9.96 9.64 0.47

2016 Otto 0.00 3.65 0.72 2.52 14.72 17.45 59.86 1.08 331.64 16.01

2017 Nate 0.29 0.14 1.29 3.11 6.25 12.10 71.88 4.94 606.53 29.27

2020 Eta 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.99 0.00 34.63 57.99 6.38 216.6 10.45

Total (USD
million)

81.74 10.18 12.48 29.09 280.50 153.96 933.80 98.26 2071.94 100.00

Percentage 5.63 0.82 1.31 2.22 10.61 14.83 58.56 6.01 100.00 100.00

A. Quesada-Román, H.G. Hidalgo and E.J. Alfaro Tropical Cyclone Research and Review 13 (2024) 196–207
TC, resulting in increased damage and loss (Quesada-Román
et al., 2021). For instance, a lack of job options can reduce
the ability of communities to recover from the disaster and
rebuild their homes and livelihoods (Abarca-Jiménez, 2016).
Furthermore, less development and poor quality of education
can limit the resources and capacities available to municipal-
ities to respond to disaster events. In addition, being located far
from the main cities can create further challenges for these
municipalities, such as limited access to healthcare, public
services, and educational opportunities. These limitations can
also impact the overall quality of life for inhabitants, making
them more vulnerable to the impacts of TC. It is important to
consider the unique challenges faced by the municipalities in
the Pacific basin when developing strategies to mitigate the
effects of TC in Costa Rica (Quesada-Román et al., 2023a).
These communities need access to the resources and capacities
necessary to prepare for, respond to, and recover from disaster
events, such as TC. Addressing these economic limitations and
providing support and opportunities can improve the resilience
of these communities and enhance their ability to withstand
future events.

In the Caribbean basin, the most affected municipalities by
TC are Upala, Los Chiles, El Guarco, Guatuso, Turrialba, San
Carlos, and Sarapiquí. Upala, Los Chiles, Guatuso, and San
Carlos are particularly susceptible to the impacts of these
Fig. 6. Main economic sectors affected by TC in Costa Rica summing a 9

202
events due to their geographic location and their level of
development. They are large, mostly flat terrains, where their
land uses have been intensively changed in the last decades
from extensive lowland evergreen forest to pastures and agri-
culture, the latter especially to pineapple (Fagan et al., 2013).
For example, the region is prone to flooding and landslides,
which can cause significant damage to homes and infrastruc-
ture (Quesada-Román et al., 2019; Quesada-Román and
Villalobos-Chacón, 2020). Furthermore, the region may have
limited resources and capacities to respond to disaster events,
exacerbating their negative impacts. Turrialba is a municipality
surrounded by volcanic mountains with a marked change to
transition floodplains where landslides and floods are common
(Garro-Quesada et al., 2023). Normally, its disasters are not
related to TC but due to their location, geomorphological dy-
namics, and high exposure especially in its principal city with
the same name, its impacts will increase in the following de-
cades (Quesada-Román, 2024). El Guarco, although it is a
small municipality in the GAM, it is located on the Caribbean
slope. Its rapid population growth and limited land use plan-
ning increase its exposure and potential impacts from TC.

TC in urban contexts of Costa Rica can cause flooding,
landslides, and property damage, affecting the local economy
and increasing the risk of public health issues. Desamparados is
the second municipality in Costa Rica, after San José, with the
5.64% of the total losses between 1988 and 2020. Icons by Freepik.



A. Quesada-Román, H.G. Hidalgo and E.J. Alfaro Tropical Cyclone Research and Review 13 (2024) 196–207
highest number of informal settlements (Quesada-Román and
Calderón-Ramírez, 2018). This fact makes it highly vulner-
able to disaster events, such as those caused by TC, due to the
lack of basic services and infrastructure in these settlements.
The high concentration of informal settlements in Desampar-
ados increases the exposure of damage to property and loss of
life during disaster events (Quesada-Román, 2022b). It is
crucial to consider the unique challenges faced by Desampar-
ados and other urban municipalities when developing strategies
to reduce the impacts of TC. This may include investing in
infrastructure improvements to increase the resilience of
buildings and transportation systems, as well as increasing
community engagement and preparedness efforts to help resi-
dents respond to disaster events. By addressing the specific
challenges faced by urban municipalities, it may be possible to
reduce the negative impacts of TC and increase the resilience
of these communities.

It is important for the government and other organizations to
develop comprehensive plans to prepare for and respond to TC
(Hoque et al., 2017a). This may include investing in infra-
structure improvements, strengthening disaster response capa-
bilities, and increasing community engagement and
preparedness efforts. By taking proactive measures, it may be
possible to reduce the negative impacts of these storms and
help communities recover more quickly following a disaster.

According with Quesada-Román and Campos-Durán (2022)
Quesada-Román and Campos-Durán, 2023, TC frequently
impact the region of Central America, especially in their road
infrastructure and agriculture sectors. Central American coun-
tries, such as Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, face sig-
nificant poverty rates, which makes their populations particularly
vulnerable to the impacts of disasters (Brockett, 2019). Limited
access to resources and support exacerbates this vulnerability,
increasing its negative consequences during times of need.
Mountain topography of mainly urban areas of Costa Rica
coupled with urban disorganized growth challenge the territorial
planning and disaster risk reduction (Quesada-Román et al.,
2021). Mountain areas are becoming more populated and
affected by hydrometeorological hazards (Pinos and Timbe,
2020). A recent study has demonstrated the critical roles that
population density and road density play in elucidating the
transmission of COVID-19 from 2020 to 2022. Moreover,
population density, coupled with the social development index,
can offer valuable perspectives on the impact of past disaster
events at the municipal level in Costa Rica (Quesada-Román
et al., 2023b). It is imperative to consider these factors when
developing strategies to mitigate the effects of TC in Costa Rica.
The information gathered through this research can aid in the
development of targeted and effective preparedness and
response plans that prioritize the most hazardous municipalities
and improve the resilience of communities.
4.2. Worldwide affected economic sectors by tropical
cyclones
TC are intense weather phenomena that can affect various
regions worldwide (Kunze, 2021). Coastal areas are typically
203
the most affected due to the cyclones' landfall, which can cause
severe flooding, strong winds, and storm surges (Woodruff
et al., 2013). Indirect impacts carry immense weight in Costa
Rica, particularly for the municipalities situated along the Pa-
cific slope, where they can potentially cause significant damage
(Hidalgo et al., 2020). Studies indicate that countries located in
the western Pacific Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean are
among the most affected areas (Knutson et al., 2010;
Mendelsohn et al., 2012). These regions include the
Philippines, Japan, the United States, and China. In terms of
economic sectors, agriculture and tourism are among the most
affected by TC. Cyclones can lead to significant agricultural
losses due to crop damage, soil erosion, and contamination of
water resources (Ortiz et al., 2023). Similarly, tourism can
suffer from cyclones due to the destruction of infrastructures
and natural resources, leading to a decline in tourism activities
in affected areas (Alvarez and Huang, 2021). The conse-
quences of TC can have long-term impacts on the economy,
environment, and social welfare of the affected regions.

TC can cause severe damage to both infrastructure and
natural resources in affected regions, leading to significant
economic, environmental, and social impacts. Therefore, it is
crucial to take action to reduce the potential consequences of
these events. Mitigation strategies can include implementing
early warning systems, increasing public awareness of risks,
and strengthening building codes to ensure structures can
withstand high winds and flooding (Swain, 2022). Addition-
ally, proper land use planning and management can help to
reduce the potential for landslides and flooding (Hoque et al.,
2017a). Restoration of natural habitats, such as mangroves
and wetlands, can also help to reduce the impact of storm
surges and flooding, as these ecosystems can act as a buffer
against these phenomena (Sun and Carson, 2020). Moreover,
investment in disaster risk reduction and preparedness can help
to mitigate the impacts of TC by improving the capacity to
respond to and recover from these events (Hoque et al., 2017b).

Under-developed countries can set up early warning sys-
tems that provide timely information about approaching TC
(Kuleshov et al., 2020). This information can help people
living in vulnerable areas to evacuate to safer places. Policy
gaps can be identified, and a novel framework can be devel-
oped to address regional challenges posed by tropical cyclones.
This approach will enhance targeted policies to mitigate eco-
nomic impacts and improve resilience in vulnerable areas
(Islam et al., 2023). Moreover, it is key to invest in infra-
structure improvements such as building flood barriers,
improving drainage systems, and constructing better roads and
bridges that are more resilient to flooding (Adhikari et al.,
2021). Governments can implement effective land use plan-
ning to prevent people from building in areas that are prone to
flooding. This can include zoning regulations and building
codes that require new construction to be elevated above flood
levels (Yin et al., 2020). The identification of return periods is
compulsory in dynamic catchments using different paleo-
graphic methods (Wilhelm et al., 2022). Therefore, the
continued monitoring of riverbeds using high-resolution
remote sensing and fieldwork is key reducing the impact of



A. Quesada-Román, H.G. Hidalgo and E.J. Alfaro Tropical Cyclone Research and Review 13 (2024) 196–207
floods in rural and urban areas (Granados-Bolaños et al., 2021;
Rabanaque et al., 2022).

Deforestation has been linked to increased flooding in
tropical regions. Under-developed countries can work to
reverse this trend by implementing reforestation programs that
help to retain water in the soil and reduce the impact of floods
(Vu et al., 2017; Friess et al., 2020). The implementation of
different nature-based solutions in hazardous areas triggered by
TC (e.g., coasts, lowlands, hillslopes, and floodplains) is a
novel and practical approach reducing these natural hazards
(Lallemant et al., 2021). In addition, countries and their most
affected regions or municipalities can work with international
organizations and nations to share knowledge and resources to
better prepare for and respond to TC (Kuleshov, 2020). This
may encompass a range of actions, such as sharing best prac-
tices, extending financial aid, and fostering collaboration in the
research and development of novel technologies.

Our study's limitations include reliance on historical eco-
nomic data, which may miss losses in the informal sector and
indirect costs. Additionally, the focus is primarily on economic
impacts, without addressing social and environmental conse-
quences. Future research should incorporate diverse data
sources, include long-term socio-economic effects, and
compare results with other regions. Exploring the influence of
climate change on tropical cyclone patterns and impacts could
further enhance resilience strategies worldwide.

5. Conclusions

This study demonstrates the persistent hazard that TC pose to
Costa Rica, particularly due to increasing population in urban
areas and inefficient land use planning. Employing the baseline
information of the Ministry of National Planning and Economic
Policy of Costa Rica, this extensive examination accentuates the
economic consequences of TC on the nation during the last
thirty years. The analysis recognizes road infrastructure, agri-
culture, sewerage systems, and housing as the sectors that have
sustained the most severe impacts. Furthermore, this study
provides valuable insights into the most vulnerable municipal-
ities and economic sectors in Costa Rica, with Pacific basin
municipalities found to be particularly susceptible due to the
indirect effects of TC. The replicable approach used in this study
can provide useful guidance for other countries and regions
affected by similar phenomena in the tropics. These findings
underscore the importance of proactive measures and effective
responses to reduce the impact of TC on vulnerable commu-
nities and promote more resilient societies.

Acknowledgements

AQ-R acknowledges Daniela Campos, Fátima Retana, and
Ministry of National Planning and Economic Policy of Costa
Rica for their recommendation and support during this
research. AQ-R also acknowledges Vicerrectoría de Inves-
tigación, Universidad de Costa Rica for the grants C4106 and
C4114. HH and EA wish to acknowledge the funding of this
research through the following Vicerrectoría de Investigación,
204
Universidad de Costa Rica grants: B9454 (supported by Fondo
de Grupos), A4-906 (PESCTMA) and C2103. All the authors
acknowledge the funding of UCREA project C3991 and were
partially supported by a grant awarded by the International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) Ottawa, Canada, and
the Central American University Council (CSUCA-SICA):
Red Centroamericana de Ciencias sobre Cambio Climático
(RC4) project (C4468, CR-66, SIA 0054-2, the opinions
expressed here do not necessarily represent those of IDRC,
CSUCA or the Board of Governors).
Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcrr.2024.08.001.

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http://refhub.elsevier.com/S2225-6032(24)00039-0/sref112
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S2225-6032(24)00039-0/sref112
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S2225-6032(24)00039-0/sref112
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S2225-6032(24)00039-0/sref112

	Assessing the impact of tropical cyclones on economic sectors in Costa Rica, Central America
	1. Introduction
	2. Material and methods
	2.1. Geographical context
	2.2. Tropical cyclones affecting Costa Rica
	2.3. Data processing and analysis
	2.4. Statistical analysis

	3. Results
	3.1. Major impacted municipalities by tropical cyclones
	3.2. Main affected economic sectors by tropical cyclones

	4. Discussion
	4.1. Local and regional socioeconomic impacts
	4.2. Worldwide affected economic sectors by tropical cyclones

	5. Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	Appendix A. Supplementary data
	References