Actualidades en Psicología, 31(123), 2017, 43-60 ISSN 2215-3535 http://revistas.ucr.ac.cr/index.php/actualidades DOI: https://doi.org/10.15517/ap.v31i123.28393 What do Chilean and Costa Rican psychologists believe and advise about parenting? ¿Qué creen y aconsejan psicólogos (as) chilenos ( as) y costarricenses sobre la crianza de los (as) hijos (as)? Pablo Javier Castro-Carrasco1 Paz Belén Alaniz Flores2 Daniela Marisol Carmona Cortés3 Tatiana Paulina Pizarro Rojas4 Camila Monserrat Soto Fernández5 Universidad de La Serena, Chile Delia Tamara Fuster Barahona6 Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, Costa Rica Abstract. This research investigates the subjective theories of 12 Chilean and Costa Rican psychologists who work with children, with the purpose of describing and interpreting their explanations about child rearing. Episodic interviews were used and analyzed using a Grounded Theory model. The interviewees point out that they use their own experience and beliefs when advising parents. Results indicated that, according to the interviewees, the topics most frequently consulted by parents were children’s high impulsivity and disciplining. The interviewees believe the most common parenting styles are the authoritarian and the permissive ones, the latter being associated with parents’ fear and anxiety. Keywords. Subjective theories, child-rearing, psychologist, parenting, Chile, Costa Rica. Resumen. Este estudio investigó las teorías subjetivas de 12 psicólogos(as) chilenos(as) y costarricenses que trabajan en temáticas de infancia, a objeto de poder describir e interpretar sus explicaciones sobre la crianza. Esta investigación fue de carácter cualitativo, con un diseño metodológico descriptivo-interpretativo. Se realizaron entrevistas episódicas, analizadas utilizando el modelo de la Grounded Theory (teoría fundamentada). Los participantes señalaron usar sus propias experiencias y creencias al a consejar a los padres y a las madres . Según los (as) entrevistados (as) , los padres y las madres consultan principalmente sobre la impulsividad y disciplina de los (as) hijos (as) . De acuerdo a los (as) entrevistados (as), los estilos parentales más recurrentes son el autoritario y el permisivo, este último asociado con el miedo y ansiedad de los padres y madres . Palabras clave. Teorías subjetivas, crianza de los(as) hijos(as), psicólogo(a) , parentalidad, Chile, Costa Rica. 1Pablo Javier Castro-Carrasco. Universidad de La Serena, Chile. Fundación América por la Infancia .Dirección Postal: Departamento de Psicología, Universidad de La Serena Matta 147, Coquimbo, Chile. E-mail: pablocastro@userena.cl 2Paz Belén Alaniz Flores. Universidad de La Serena, Chile. E-mail: pazalanizf@gmail.com 3Daniela Marisol Carmona Cortés. Universidad de La Serena, Chile. E-mail: danielatiz@gmail.com 4 Tatiana Paulina Pizarro Rojas. Universidad de La Serena, Chile. E-mail: tatianapaulina@gmail.com 5 Camila Monserrat Soto Fernádez. Universidad de La Serena, Chile. E-mail: msf.camila@gmail.com 6 Delia Tamara Fuster Barahona. Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, Costa Rica. E-mail: tfuster_2001@yahoo.com Esta obra está bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial-SinObraDerivada 4.0 Internacional. 44 Castro-Carrasco, Alaniz, Carmona, Pizarro, Soto & Fuster Introduction parenting practices. In Chile, it has been found that Chilean mothers used more restrictive control than As children grow older, parents apply a set of child German mothers. The difference is also observed rearing practices in order to guide and educate them, and thus allow them to integrate into society. Such when comparing children’s regulation, as researchers practices are defined as “the process by which parent have found that European children display higher and other child rearing agents transmit and by which levels of behavior regulation and anger-oriented children acquire the prior existing competencies emotion regulation compared to Chilean ones (Weis, required by their social, economic, political and other Trommsdorff & Muñoz, 2016). future adult cultural tasks” (Ogbu, 1995, p. 254). In various cultures, groups of so-called “experts” Aside from practices, raising children concerns two have been formed (Castro et al., 2013), including other processes: child rearing guidelines and beliefs philosophers, psychologists, and physicians who have about child rearing (Izzedin & Pachajoa, 2009). The written about childrearing either for an academic present study targets the latter element, defined as audience or for the general public, in order to every day, professional, or scientific knowledge about help parents achieve the goals associated with the how a child must be raised. representative models of each culture (Castro et al., 2013; Hardyment, 2007; Kojima, 1996). The current Studying child rearing is fundamental, because trend is to support child rearing by basing it on “what it is closely connected with child development, the science says”; a phenomenon accompanied by an different conceptions of children, customs, and increase in child rearing experts (Lee, Bristow, Faircloth socio-historical and cultural norms (Rogoff, 2003; & Macvarish, 2014), some of whom are psychologists. Super & Harkness, 1997). In addition, child rearing has been studied for centuries because it is regarded A number of studies have shown a connection as one of the most important activities in society. between beliefs in several domains of parenting and the culture of those who espouse such beliefs Research on parenting has focused on studying either (Ekmekci et al., 2016). Thus, people regarded as parenting beliefs, parenting practices, or parenting parenting experts in each culture give advice based styles (as developed by Baumrind, 1973). However, it on their professional knowledge and beliefs, both of is not always clear how these components of parenting which are culturally influenced (Hardyment, 2007). are related or why the authoritarian style of parenting has negative consequences on European-American Due to the above, we were interested in studying two children but not on other ethnicities. As a way to groups of practitioners from two different countries explain this perplexing result, Darling and Steinberg (Chile and Costa Rica). Both Costa Rica and Chile (1993) propose that parenting style moderates the are upper-middle income countries and compared effect of parenting practices on the child. to other countries in the Latin American regions, relatively developed. However, they are situated in Culture-bound differences in parenting are a topic geographically different areas (Central America and of research interest, regarding both parental practices and beliefs. In general terms, it has been found that South America, respectively) and have experienced Latino parents living in the United States stress politically different historical trajectories. Therefore, collectivistic socialization goals over individualistic differences may exist between their subjective theories ones (Arcia, Reyes-Blanes & Vásquez-Montilla, (STs), attributable to their cultural contexts (Avendaño, 2000; Delgado & Ford, 1998). By comparing parents Krause & Winkler, 1993; Catalán, 2016; Dann, 1990). from Greece, Cameroon, and Costa Rica, Keller Despite the relevance of studying child rearing, et al. (2004) concluded that Costa Rican mothers only a few studies have described what types of practiced a combination of both distal and proximal advice these expert professionals are giving to parents Actualidades en Psicología, 31(123), 2017, 43-60 Beliefs and advice of Hispanic American psychologists about parenting 45 for raising their children and how this process is Castro & Carrasco, 2013). This notion is supported occurring (Castro et al., 2013). by studies that have argued, specifically in the field of Therefore, we are interested in understanding the psychology, that these professionals, upon the basis beliefs about childrearing held by psychologists and of their experience, develop personal (subjective) how such beliefs influence the advice they provide to theories that roughly overlap the scientific orientation parents. This should be done taking into account that or theory that guides the way they do their job (e.g. child rearing is a cultural activity that influences the Najavits, 1997; Sandler, 1983). development of children; thus, the advice provided The concept of subjective theories was proposed is not only based on scientific theories but also on by Groeben and Scheele in 1977, based on a subjective theories linked to a specific culture. constructivist point of view (Catalán, 2016). The Historical background: childrearing advice concept refers to the modes of construction of everyday knowledge (Avendaño et al, 1993). Thus, In the early 20th Century, as media influence increased, grandparents’ advice had to compete with STs are a set of beliefs about oneself and one’s the advice from experts since parents started to prefer environment that possess an argumentative structure practical and mechanical suggestions (Beekman, 1977), which is at least implicit and whose functions are emphasizing the regularity of child rearing habits to explain, to predict, and to use technology; thus, (Hulbert, 2003). they can be compared to the structure of scientific theories (Avendaño et al., 1993; Catalán, 2010, 2016; World War II also generated changes which Groeben & Scheele, 1982). resulted in a dichotomy in people’s understanding of childrearing: on the one hand, authoritarianism, with Gómez and Haz (2008) note that the formal models parents exerting full control, and the Freudian view on that psychologists “acquire during their undergraduate the other, which emphasized the benefits of emotional and graduate education are a fundamental part of closeness in the bond (Beekman, 1977; Borinsky, 2005; their professional work” (p. 54). This theoretical Hardyment, 2007). material contributes to the conceptual and technical framework that they will later use to support the Faircloth (2014) states that, nowadays, parental recommendations on child rearing that they offer. figures are being blamed for their inadequate child However, as previously mentioned, formal models rearing practices, since there is a mass of information available on how to raise children. Thus, the different “are not the only element that affects professional child rearing habits currently being applied are backed performance” (Gómez & Haz, p. 54): STs have up by prescriptions. Within the context described, been shown to have “a strong influence on the specifically, psychologists have become intermediaries comprehension, planning, and action dynamics of between scientific psychology and parents. professionals” (Gómez & Haz, p. 54). In this regard, psychologists, inasmuch as they are people, cannot For this reason, the present study is intended to escape the influence of their own constructions and shed light on the subjective theories of psychologists reconstructions in their interactions with fathers, working with children, since today’s parents often mothers, sons, and daughters. try several strategies without being able to find the response that suits the infant’s needs and then resort According to Sandler (1983), reviewing implicit to professional advice (Hardyment, 2007). theories, that is, studying how psychologists think in practice, can contribute to the development of Professionals’ subjective theories formal theories and be especially fruitful in the case Subjective Theories influence how professionals of specific populations for which theory does not understand, plan, and perform actions (Keyserlingk, exist or is considered to be incomplete. Actualidades en Psicología, 31(122), 2017, 43-60 46 Castro-Carrasco, Alaniz, Carmona, Pizarro, Soto & Fuster Aims Twelve psychologists were chosen: six Chileans and The present study is intended to make it possible six Costa Ricans. All these professionals gave their to comprehend the beliefs about childrearing held verbal and written consent to participate in this study. by professionals. For this reason, the study seeks to Data collection describe and interpret the explicit and implicit STs The data were collected via episodic interviews. about child rearing held by psychologists who work This allowed us to access two forms of knowledge with children and who are in contact with parents. about the professionals’ STs: on the one hand, the The specific aims of the present study were: (1) To episodic narrative-knowledge used in narrations, and, identify the STs that the participating professionals on the other, semantic knowledge (Flick, 2014) probed hold regarding parenting and their relation with the through concrete, specific questions such as “What advice that they give to parents and (2) To confront do you associate the word `discipline´ with?” The these professionals’ STs about parenting in order to interviews lasted sixty minutes on average and were (2a) analyze potential correspondences between them audio recorded. and scientific theories of psychological development The twelve interviews were conducted in a and (2b) analyze potential differences between the semistructured manner, upon the basis of an interview STs of Chilean and Costa Rican psychologists which guide prepared by the authors. The open questions and can be ascribed to their cultural contexts. narrative incentives (Flick, 2014) used covered eleven Based on the above, generative questions were topical domains derived from the aims and generative formulated for each specific aim, which are not questions of this study. Approximately thirty-eight included in this article due to space constraints. questions were asked in each interview. Table 1 displays the topical domains with their questions and incentives. Method Data Analysis The present study employed a descriptive- interpretative methodological design of a The interviews were transcribed verbatim. The qualitative nature. transcripts were analyzed with Atlas.ti software, version 5.2 in order to identify the participants’ STs Participants and their subjective meanings. Some Grounded The sampling procedure used was selected in Theory procedures were used to analyze the data, by accordance with the paradigm of maximum structural means of an inductive process intended to produce an variation of perspectives (Kleining & Witt, 2001) in explanatory model based on the data obtained (Strauss our design. Given that the cultural background & Corbin, 2002). factor was likely to have an influence on the The data were analyzed in two phases: results obtained, efforts were made to employ a i) Open coding. In the open coding phase, the heterogeneous sample. The latter was facilitated due transcribed texts constituted the data to be analyzed. to the participation of researchers from two distant Upon this basis, the information obtained was regions of America, which made it viable to examine examined, fragmented, and compared in order to this specific research question. group it into overarching core categories that resulted Purposive sampling was used (Patton, 1991) and in a set of subjective theory codes. In this stage of the following inclusion criteria had to be met by the the process, STs were identified in the text, following participants: at least five years of professional experience the recommendation to identify the hypotheses as a psychologist and at least two years of experience in directly formulated by the subjects or inferred by children’s issues, including interventions with parents. the researchers (Catalán, 2010; Flick, 2014). In this Actualidades en Psicología, 31(123), 2017, 43-60 Beliefs and advice of Hispanic American psychologists about parenting 47 Table 1 Topical domains and questions included in the interview Topical domains Questions and narrative incentives Punishment and What do you associate with the word “discipline”? discipline In your professional experience, have you given advice related to discipline? Could you give us some examples? Do you think that not using discipline has consequences? Socioemotional Tell me, what do you think about socioemotional skills? competences Some people say it’s good to stimulate these skills. Considering your experience, what is your opinion? How do you deal with situations in which a child has problems with his or her peers? Overprotectiveness What do you associate with the word “overprotectiveness” How do you understand overprotectiveness? Sometimes it’s said that having overprotective parents has an impact on children. Do you think this is important? Can you share with me a situation in your professional practice which exemplifies what you’ve said to me? (a concrete episode or a typical one) Stress in school What do you think about child stress? or contexts And regarding school contexts, what has your experience been like? Educational techniques What do you think about parenting and values? (understood as principles that orient behavior) according to values Which of these statements makes more sense to you: “the child learns by him/herself ?” or “the child learns from an adult”? Are you sometimes required to give advice on values to parents? Do you recall any situations you’d like to share with us? Parents’ educational What do you think about parents’ educational level and forms of parenting? Could you share level any experiences with us? Parenting styles What do you think about the parenting or child rearing styles of the parents you work with? Based on your experience with parents or children, what do you think about the parental style of parents today? Please talk to me about one situation you’ve experienced? Parental role Parents sometimes distribute their roles. Some people recommend this. What do you think about stereotypes this? Are roles distributed in the families you work with? Which roles could these be? Why is this done? What does it depend on? What do you tell parents about this? Continues... Actualidades en Psicología, 31(122), 2017, 43-60 48 Castro-Carrasco, Alaniz, Carmona, Pizarro, Soto & Fuster Aspects that strengthen Based on your experience, do you think that some aspects must be encouraged in child rearing? or hinder child rearing In your opinion, what elements could affect child development? From your point of view, what role does the family play in child rearing? What does it involve? Could you exemplify your point with a situation in which you had to talk to parents about this? What do you tell them? What does your advice consist in? Why do/did you think it was important to tell them that? Alignment of STs with Do you think that what you tell parents is related to a specific psychological theory? scientific theories If you look at your work with children and parents, what is the role played by your own beliefs or explanations about parenting? Do you identify with any psychological theories about parenting? Why? Giving advice Psychologists often give advice to parents. When you give advice, how do you do it? Why do you think it’s important? (If the interviewee said that he/she did not give advice, he/she was asked “what do you do when you communicate with parents?” The meaning of this aspect for the interviewee was explored; for instance, if he/she said that he provided recommendations, guidelines, or guidance, he/she was asked: “what is a recommendation and how does it differ from advice?”) For psychologists, what is the importance of giving advice to parents about parenting? (Here, we used the concept that the interviewee employed, for instance “orienting them”, “talking to them”, “guiding them”) Do you think that the advice provided by a psychologist may be influenced by his/her own parenting experience? Have you noticed this in yourself ? You can share with us a situation in which you’ve observed this. Final questions Would you like to talk about a topic you think is relevant and which we have not discussed so far? What topics do you think are important to discuss and parents rarely ask about? phase, the open coding and create free quotation by the first and last authors. The process resulted in a functions of the Atlas.ti program were used. STs definitive list of reconstructed STs which constituted were reconstructed by identifying quotations with an the codes for this phase. ST-like structure, summarizing them in the form of ii) Axial coding. Afterwards, in the axial coding a theory, generally adapting them to the statements process, the core categories were selected and “if x, then y” or “in order to achieve y, one can do grouped into subcategories. These core categories x” (Gastager, Patry & Wiedemair, 2010, p. 6). Several and subcategories emerged by grouping the multiple quotations, from one or more participants, were topics alluded to by the STs reconstructed in the reconstructed by the researchers and used to form previous phase, considering their thematic closeness a single ST. For example, “Since parents associate and the relative hierarchical position of their STs. This was done in the interest that some STs were discipline with punishments only, we as psychologists considered to be subordinated to other more general must `broaden their view´” (-ST Ps 3/5/6 CL-). This STs (which originated the levels presented in table 2). inductive-type procedure was jointly conducted by All the authors of the present article participated in the second, third, fourth, and fifth authors of this this procedure, divided into two groups: one formed article, after which the resulting STs were confirmed by the second, third, fourth, and fifth authors, and Actualidades en Psicología, 31(123), 2017, 43-60 Beliefs and advice of Hispanic American psychologists about parenting 49 Table 2 Categories and subcategories Categories Subcategories Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Subcategories Subcategories Subcategories Subcategories The What does No advice is given Reasons: psychologist’s the therapist work do with the Personal parents? assumptions Parents’ abilities are underestimated Displaces responsibility from parents Not useful for all Advice is given From personal Why is advice given? What is this experience Low parent tension advice on? Possible therapeutic High impulsivity resource Discipline Children’s self-care Value-related issues From theory Better quality of life Better knowledge of human development Little time to work with parents Subjective Limits Rigid (-) Parenting Styles Influence of Low SEL theories about discipline Clear (+) Authoritarian (-) socioeducational High SEL Absent (-) Balanced (+) level (SEL) Permissive (-) Social context Influence of Manner in other more which parents important factors were raised Over- Parents’ fear protectiveness (-) and anxiety (-) Underestimating children’s abilities (-) Continues... Actualidades en Psicología, 31(122), 2017, 43-60 50 Castro-Carrasco, Alaniz, Carmona, Pizarro, Soto & Fuster Discrediting (-) Inhibits social- emotional skills Punishment (-) Note. The table details the axial coding used to define categories and subcategories grouping together the STs reconstructed in the previous phase (open coding). The + sign signals factors that facilitate child rearing, while the – sign represents factors that hinder it (according to the interviewees’ STs). another composed of the first and last authors. The actions”, “perform psychoeducation”, “restructure”, first team prepared a draft of the categories and “challenge”, “conduct direct interventions”, and subcategories identified, which was presented to “advise”. The following quotations exemplify these the second team of researchers to obtain feedback, beliefs (Psyx and the country codes CR [Costa Rica] agree on certain decisions (researcher triangulation), or CL [Chile] refer to the professional interviewed). and make modifications. This process gave rise to two core categories (or central phenomena) which Psy3 CL: “I let them know that what I’m telling originated the models described in later sections. them is not the whole solution, I think that it’s also what I show them, you can do this here, it’s an open Links were identified between the subcategories, suggestion, this is one of the things that can be done...” which made it possible to analyze the data interpretatively. The Results section shows the According to the professionals, they tend to two models reconstructed using this process. The give advice regarding issues connected with “high models were generated by establishing links among impulsivity” and discipline. the STs within each core category. In this phase, the Psy5 CR: “It’s very frequent, parents often ask research team analyzed the two groups in the sample about that, discipline, I mean, difficulties setting limits separately (Chile and Costa Rica), upon the basis of for children...” a prior version of the models, in order to ensure that intersubjectivity would be preserved. Table 2 details On the other hand, when asked “What topics do you the emergent categories and subcategories identified think would be important to address but are infrequently through the analyses carried out. brought up by parents?”, they mention that topics such as single parenting and families of a diverse sexual Results orientation are not addressed in their professional work The following section describes the two emergent with parents who come to them seeking help. models (The psychologist’s work and Subjective Some interviewees point out that they do not theories about discipline) through a relational give advice, because this is a practice that involves analysis (Krause, 1995) of the core categories and the personal assumptions of each professional, subcategories that emerged (see table 2). This is underestimates the personal abilities or resources of complemented by some of the STs identified and the parents, and displaces their responsibility. quotations from the interviewees, some of which could be interpreted as STs. Psy3 CL: “... I think advice is like something a friend can give you, the suggestion I can make has to The psychologist’s work do with providing alternatives, not imposing them, I Psychologists recommend, “suggest”, “indicate”, want to let the other person solve the issue too and “broaden parents’ view”, “work on parents’ child rearing use what is useful...” Actualidades en Psicología, 31(123), 2017, 43-60 Beliefs and advice of Hispanic American psychologists about parenting 51 Nevertheless, some professionals acknowledge that ST Psy 3/5/6 CL: “Since parents associate they give advice in their practice due to their personal discipline with punishments only, we as psychologists and professional experience. must ‘broaden their view’”. Psy5 CR: “... I feel they need to know they’re not the On the same subject, some professionals associate only ones who are going through this and that helps discipline with the discrediting that may occur them feel a bit less tense, and I, it’s not like I share a between parents or other relatives, noting that if one lot of my personal life, but if I have to make use of an parent contradicts the “norms” imposed by the other, experience with my own children, I’ll certainly use it...” children feel confused and find it hard to understand Some participants agree that, from a theoretical their limits. perspective, advice is relevant because it can be part Ps2 CL: ... when the mom is raising a child and of a systemic approach or can be adapted to the if in the same family someone discredits her, the context of the family consulting the professional; in grandmother or the grandfather for example, who addition, more than one theory is used in a single constantly criticizes her and sets other norms for the child, that also affects childrearing, it becomes case. Despite accepting that giving theory-based diffuse for the child to know ‘what do I have to do, advice is valid, the professionals did not specify who I should I obey, what are the rules in this house which scientific theories associated with childrearing could be used. Regarding limits and discipline, according to the professionals, discipline involves setting limits, which Psy3 CL: “I think there are certain theories or lines can be rigid, clear, or absent. The professionals that work very well with certain types of patients associate rigid limits with an authoritarian parenting and others work well with others, from a behavioral style, whereas clear limits are linked with balanced perspective, even from a cognitive or emotional one, parenting. A lack of limits, for the psychologists different techniques, I could not limit myself to a interviewed, characterizes permissive parenting. single one” Ps3 CL: “... discipline understood as order, that The participants also mention that their own beliefs children have a clear idea of what their limits are, influence the advice that they give. what the house rules are, knowing beforehand what Psy5 CL: “As I was just telling you when we were the rules are for going somewhere...” discussing beliefs, it’s a part of what you’ve studied In the latter case, the professionals also associate but also of what you’ve experienced, how others a lack of “limits” with overprotection, explained raised you...” by parents’ fear and anxiety, a behavior that also Subjective theories about discipline underestimates children’s capabilities. The relationships of the concept of discipline Psy 3 CR: ... it has to do a bit with the issue of limits, emerged as one of the issues on which psychologists I mean, those parents believe that setting limits is to hurt the child [...] and well, in that case I do tell are more likely to give advice. This phenomenon was parents that they’re actually harming them. That the reconstructed using axial coding and is connected child needs, well, limits in the first place, and then he with the STs that psychologists have about discipline. or she needs to feel that he or she has the ability to The STs about discipline held by some of the manage and solve issues... professionals interviewed are associated with Also regarding parenting styles, the interviewees punishment, which they regard as an unsuitable believe that child rearing today oscillates between means for imposing norms. An example of these authoritarianism and permissiveness, never reaching STs is: a point of balance. This view is supported by some Actualidades en Psicología, 31(122), 2017, 43-60 52 Castro-Carrasco, Alaniz, Carmona, Pizarro, Soto & Fuster psychologists who argue that those parents may have level it’s more problematic, there are more difficulties, been raised in an authoritarian parenting style, which is but I do see it a lot in poorer people, educationally and why they tend to be more permissive now. socioeconomically speaking, one sees many values that ST Psy 5/6 CL: “Since parenting styles tended to be are different, a different way of managing situations, authoritarian in the past, nowadays they are permissive” other beliefs, such as more sympathy towards slightly more violent methods for educating children, than what With respect to a different matter, when parenting one sees in parents of a higher educational level...” styles and socio-educational level are compared, some interviewees state that there is an influence, while Lastly, there is a disagreement among the others note that, rather than the socio-educational professionals interviewed regarding the possibility of level, the strongest influence on parenting styles is working on child rearing issues in contexts of extreme exerted by factors such as the social context and the poverty: some of them state that it is possible if one way in which parents were themselves raised. adapts to the context, while others assert that it is not possible because there are several more pressing needs. Psy 6 CR: “... and actually for me it’s not their educational level, it has to do with the context, Psy 2 CL: “... you can’t [work] on childrearing, at right... I wouldn’t judge them for being unable to most you can work with the adolescent on issues such as life goals, self-care too, as I mentioned before, generate productive homes because they have low psychoeducation in terms of consumption, school schooling rates, but their deprived social context is a motivation, but you can’t work on childrearing” stronger influence...” Psy 6 CR: I think it’s not a waste of time as long The psychologists who believe that parenting styles as you see that the parents’ are willing to do it [...] are influenced by parents’ socio-educational level state you have to try to adapt to their experience, try to that those with a high socio-educational level are in identify what is useful for them... but you can do possession of certain child rearing facilitators, such as some things, the problem is that the results won’t be more development alternatives, a better understanding as good as we expect, but you can achieve something, of developmental concepts, and clearer values. On the even if the improvements are small […]. other hand, one of the aspects that is detrimental to child rearing in this socio-educational level is the fact Discussion that children may be raised by other people. Results show that the interviewees feel that some Psy 2 CL: “... there is a directly proportional issues are not mentioned by their patients and that there relationship, when you characterize the families is no consensus on how to address them, specifically, in these SENAME [National Service for Minors] single parent families and the childrearing models of programs at least, you find a very high percentage in families of a diverse sexual orientation. Considering the most of them [...] parents didn’t finish school […] results, it is necessary to research these issues in order to that is enough to show you that there’s a connection foster and optimize programs that contribute to finding between their schooling and the way in which they alternatives that stimulate a positive coexistence among raised their children” their members (Agudelo, 2005). Regarding the lack of empirical research on childrearing in single parent According to some of the professionals, having families, mentioned by the interviewees, a number of a low socio-educational level is a factor that affects studies providing guidelines were found (e.g. Bos & childrearing, because violence is more prevalent in Standfort, 2010). this context. In contrast, the advice that is most frequently given Psy 5 CR: “... Yes, I think there’s a connection, it’s to parents concerns children’s high impulsivity and not a certain, mechanical connection, at an educational discipline. Impulsivity is characterized by a lack of Actualidades en Psicología, 31(123), 2017, 43-60 Beliefs and advice of Hispanic American psychologists about parenting 53 impulse control in children, which reveals, according The professionals also associate discipline with limits, to one interviewee, parents’ difficulties in managing linking rigid limits with an authoritarian parenting style, their emotions and “high impulsivity” (Ps2 CL) in clear limits with a more balanced type of parenting, and them. In this regard, this psychologist’s professional a lack of limits with permissive parenting. This view knowledge, expressed in his ST, is in line with studies of parents’ behavior in everyday life situations with on the link between several parental traits and their their children, as well as in decision-making or problem- children’s behavior (e.g. Cabello, Gutiérrez-Cobo, & solving contexts, matches the classification of parental Fernández-Berrocal, 2017); specifically, the role of educational styles advanced by several authors (e.g. parents’ emotions and their influence on child disruptive Baumrind, 1973). behavior problems has also been studied (though not in With respect to the above, it is interesting to note Latin America) (e.g. Stormshak, Bierman, McMahon, that the participants state that, even though nowadays Lengua & Conduct Problems Prevention Research the authoritarian parenting style is predominant, the Group, 2000). permissive style is also quite recurrent, with both styles A second recurrent topic in the questions made by sometimes being present in one parent. This belief parents to the interviewees concerns discipline. The is partly consistent with other studies with Spanish- frequency of this topic as the focus of parents’ inquiries speaking participants. Torío, Peña and Inda-Caro (2008) is consistent with a study conducted in Chile by De la found that the parents of children aged 5-8 do not have Harpe (2014), who points out that this is the topic a clearly defined parenting style. A similar result was which psychologists belonging to Chile Crece Contigo, reported by Arvelo (2003), who studied Venezuelan a governmental system for the integral protection adolescents receiving psychological care and found an of children, are most frequently asked about. In oscillating style (authoritarian-permissive) in fathers. our study, the professionals interviewed believe that The above constitutes another point of view parents associate discipline with punishment, and according to which a parenting style can be selected. consider that this is a frequent but unsuitable means Parental discipline, despite being associated with through which they try to set limits for their children. parents’ traits, is also influenced by variables linked This notion is supported by studies that note that with children’s personal characteristics, such as their age behavior control is effected via a disciplinary action to (Regalado, Sareen, Inkelas, Wissow & Halfon, 2004) which families resort in order to foster their children’s or temperament, along with other situational variables development (Ramírez, 2005). such as the setting, the people present, the attribution In addition, some psychologists interviewed of motivations, and the emotion elicited in the parents state that using discipline in child rearing involves (Ceballos & Rodrigo, 1998). This differs from the love and affection towards children, in contrast beliefs manifested by the interviewees, who mention with punishment, which, as previously mentioned, that it is necessary to define a specific parenting style to is rejected by some professionals. This reflects prevent confusion in children. They prefer a balanced the presence of a general subjective theory in our (democratic) child rearing style, which is characterized interviewees, supported by cultural beliefs and a by a positive evaluation of children, emotional support, consensus in the field of psychology (affection as a consistency in the application of norms, and the central element for modeling children’s behavior), but fostering of autonomy (Berger, 2004; Mestre, Tur, which has a low degree of sophistication (Catalán, Samper, Nácher & Cortés, 2007). 2010, 2014): the psychologists interviewed do not The results obtained may be extended by exploring mention differences in the exercise of parental whether psychologists, when giving advice and discipline connected with parents’ gender or their identifying parenting styles, are influenced by the children’s age (Hallers-Haalboom et al., 2015). socialization goals that parents have for their children Actualidades en Psicología, 31(122), 2017, 43-60 54 Castro-Carrasco, Alaniz, Carmona, Pizarro, Soto & Fuster (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). If psychologists increase they allow children to develop frustration tolerance the complexity of their explanations about parents’ (Aguirre-Dávila, 2015). preferred styles, the subjective theories of the latter may be enriched. This could lead to advice that is better Regarding the interviewees’ subjective theories aligned with the multiple beliefs of parents regarding of the association between child rearing styles and the aims of their parental practices. socio-educational and socioeconomic level, Ramírez (2005), in a review of child rearing practices, According to the beliefs held by the psychologists discovered that one of the factors most consistently who participated in this study, educational styles connected with parents and the family’s educational have wide-ranging repercussions and developmental style is socioeconomic status, with the educational consequences that have an effect beyond childhood. level attained by parents being the best factor for This may be proof of the deterministic view of infancy identifying parents’ childrearing style. Likewise, it present in contemporary psychology, transmitted has been established that the family’s socioeconomic to parents as the suggestion that they should be status predicts its disciplinary practices and children’s excessively cautious about the possible consequences academic success (Jansen et al., 2012; Mokrova, of their actions on the psychological development of O’Brien, Calkins, Leerkes & Marcovitch, 2012), which their children (Borinsky, 2005). supports the interviewees’ beliefs about this issue. On the other hand, overprotection is thought to However, a recent study carried out in Chile shows no be linked with fear and anxiety coming from parents, connection between low family income and parental as well as with their tendency to underestimate their performance (Olhaberry & Farkas, 2012). children’s abilities, which may hinder aspects such as their socio-emotional skills. In this regard, authors Other studies state that, in contexts of urban poverty, have described the immediate or eventual repercussions the authoritarian parenting style appears to be necessary, of this excessively overprotective approach, such as a even functioning as a protective factor for children by reduction in children’s resilience, social skills, sense of facilitating their adaptation to difficult environments responsibility, and self-efficacy, which limit their ability (Brody & Flor, 1998; Furstenberg, Cook, Eccles, Elder to act towards making changes in their lives (Levine, & Sameroff, 1999). 2006; Nelson, 2010; Saavedra & Castro, 2009). According to Richaud et al. (2013), socially With respect to the reduction in socio- vulnerable parents encounter several obstacles, such emotional skills that the interviewees associate with as low educational levels and domestic violence, overprotective behaviors and a permissive parenting which transcend their material deficits and have style, it has been observed that this style, combined repercussions on their parental competences. This with insufficient efforts to control and supervise issue can be linked with our interviewees’ theory that children, is related to poor social adjustment in violence is used more frequently in socioeducationally children’s development (Arvelo, 2003; Ato, Galián, deprived contexts. Similarly, it was found that & Huéscar, 2007). This is also associated with lower low socioeconomic status (SES) increases the risk levels of achievement orientation, self-regulation, of parents’ use of harsh punishments (Manrique social responsibility (Locke, Campbell, & Kavanagh, Millones, Ghesquière & van Leeuwen, 2014) and that 2012), and a lack of self-control (Berger, 2004). Rice stress, anxiety, depression and depressive symptoms (2000) states that this permissive discipline results rates are greater in low-SES parents (Mistry, Stevens, in spoiled children who have trouble respecting Sareen, De Vogli & Halfo, 2007; Oliva, Montero, norms. Similarly, the benefits of parenting practices & Gutiérrez, 2006), even though this does not oriented towards behavior regulation have also been necessarily imply lower parental performance noted: being neither permissive nor overprotective, (Olhaberry & Farkas, 2012). Actualidades en Psicología, 31(123), 2017, 43-60 Beliefs and advice of Hispanic American psychologists about parenting 55 There are multiple theories for explaining differences and found that these professionals attributed the between parental styles in middle and low economic origin of these behaviors to experiences at home with levels (Ghate, Hazel, Creighton & Finch, 2003; Harris family. This differs from our results, as the participating & Marmer, 1996; Jefferis, Power & Hertzman, 2002). psychologists, despite considering that some familial Nevertheless, one of the key findings is that parents, aspects influence parental discipline, also take into when faced with stressors associated with poverty, account elements from the wider social context where respond differently depending on the cultural group children develop. to which they belong (Barnes, 2004; Deater-Deckard, On the other hand, most psychologists mention 2004; Jansen et al., 2012; Katz, Corlyon, La Placa & that they give advice on childrearing, although some Hunter, 2007), which supports the belief that parents’ of them deny using this practice as a therapeutic cultural context has a greater influence on child rearing resource; instead, they use synonyms such as than their socio-educational level. recommending, suggesting, broadening parents’ The results presented so far can also be discussed in view, or giving instructions. In addition, it can be connection with three recent studies that have examined inferred that the Costa Rican psychologists appear the beliefs of other professionals about child rearing. to adopt this practice more naturally with parents, The authors of a study conducted in the Netherlands without assigning a negative connotation to it, unlike (Ekmekci et al., 2016) show that professionals’ beliefs the Chilean psychologists, who implicitly express about a specific aspect of child rearing, maternal that giving advice is inappropriate within their sensitivity, correlate strongly with their educational professional context. Likewise, it must be pointed level. Here, we find an indirect connection with our out that most psychologists from both countries results, as some of the psychologists interviewed agree that it is impossible to ignore their own beliefs stress the importance of parents’ educational level and and experiences when giving advice, which makes it socioeconomic status with respect to child rearing. In necessary for them to employ techniques to reduce brief, differences in parenting styles associated with their own biases. This is supported by other studies parents’ schooling and socioeconomic status are well that show that psychotherapists combine their own established in research, and some of our interviewees experiences with the technical orientation of their also incorporate this notion into their STs. profession in order to fulfill the tasks that their job involves (Moncada, 2007; Najavits, 1997; Sandler, Another study on professional beliefs about 1983; Schön, 1983). parenting (Locke, Campbell & Kavanagh, 2012) Thus, the Costa Rican psychologists believe that specifically explored the concept of overparenting in advising parents is a valid professional resource in their psychologists. These researchers report a finding similar work with them. In this regard, based on the training to ours: professionals believe that parents’ anxiety is one experience of the first author (trainer of psychologists of the causes of their higher-intensity parental practices in Chile) and the last author (trainer of psychologists (extreme levels of responsiveness associated with in Costa Rica), we hypothesize that this difference may the permissive style). Regarding overprotectiveness, spring from the education received by both groups Castro-Carrasco et al. (2013), through an analysis of of professionals, as Chilean professors may stress the Latin American parenting books, identified STs that notion that psychologists should not give “advice” define overprotectiveness as a negative influence on (González, González, & Vicencio, 2014). Nevertheless, child development and highlight the importance of the this is at odds with the old Chilean Health Code (1968), emotional support that parents provide. which states that one of the aims of the professional In Latin America, Loza and Frisancho (2010) studied services of psychologists is to “advise” patients (as the beliefs of female teachers about child aggressiveness cited in Loubat, 2013), and with the image conveyed Actualidades en Psicología, 31(122), 2017, 43-60 56 Castro-Carrasco, Alaniz, Carmona, Pizarro, Soto & Fuster by Chilean media that a psychologist is someone who la agresión. Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales, “gives advice” (Reyes, 2009). Niñez y Juventud, 3(1) 153-179. Another possible explanation for the difference Aguirre-Dávila, E. (2015). Prácticas de found between the participating psychologists involves crianza, temperamento y comportamiento the contexts where they work: all the Costa Rican prosocial de estudiantes de educación psychologists have some experience in educational básica. Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias institutions, a sphere where giving advice to parents is Sociales, Niñez y Juventud, 13(1), 223-243. doi: expected from them (Juliá, 2006), which is not the case 10.11600/1692715x.13113100314 for the Chilean participants. Arcia, E., Reyes-Blanes, M. E., Vasquez-Montilla, E. The above must be more specifically researched in (2000). Constructions and reconstructions: Latino order to explore these hypotheses. parents’ values for children. Journal of Child and As a recommendation for future research, it would Family Studies, 9(3), 333-350. be relevant to study the advice that other professionals Arvelo, L. (2003). 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