RETOS Y OPORTUNIDADES DE LA SEGURIDAD ALIMENTARIA Y NUTRICIONAL EN LAS AMÉRICAS 1 Resumen ChallReentgoes sy aonpodr Otupnpidoardteusn diet ileas s efogur rFidoaodd The Inter-American Network of Academies of Sciences (IANAS), is a regional network of Academies of and Nutrition Security in the Americas Sciences created to support cooperation to strengthen science and technology as tools for advancing alimentaria y nutricional en las Américas research and development, prosperity and equity in the Americas. IANAS is regional member of the Inter Academy Partnership (IAP) The ViewE ol pf utnhteo Adec avdisetam diee lsa so Af cSacdieemnicaess de Ciencias North America The Royal Society of Canada: The Academies of Arts, Humanities and Sciences of Canada The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Mexican Academy of Sciences Central America and the Caribbean Eduardo Bianchi Cuban Academy of Science Catedrático e Investigador Academy of Sciences of the Dominican Republic Escuela Argentina de Negocios - Instituto Universitario, Academy of Medical, Physical and Natural Sciences of Guatemala FLACSO OMS, Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales National Academy of Sciences of Costa Rica Nicaraguan Academy of Sciences Panamanian Association for the Advancement of Science National Academy of Sciences of Honduras Cristina Cabrera Profesora Titular, GD Nutrición y Calidad de Alimentos, Departamento de Produc- South America ción Animal y Pasturas, Facultad de Agronomía; Profesor Adjunto Fisiología y Nutri- Academy of Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences of Venezuela The Inter-American Network Colombian Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences ción, Facultad de Ciencias, Udelar, Montevideo, Uruguayof Academies of Sciences Brazilian Academy of Sciences Academia Mexicana de Ciencias National Academy of Sciences of Peru Calle Cipreses s/n National Academy of Sciences of Bolivia Km 23.5 Carretera federal Elizabeth Hodson de Jaramillo Chilean Academy of Science México-Cuernavaca Profesora Emérita, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Colombia; Miembro de la Aca- National Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences of Argentina 14400, Tlalpan, Ciudad de Mexico demia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales National Academy of Sciences, Argentina Phone: (+52-55) 5573-6501 The National Academy of Sciences of Uruguay Fax: (+52 55) 5849-5112 Academy of Sciences of Ecuador Free public access of this book Katherine Vammen Regional Members in English and Spanish at Decano de la Facultad de Ciencias, Tecnología y Medio Ambiente de la Universidad Latin American Academy of Science www.ianas.org Centroamericana (UCA) de Managua, Nicaragua Caribbean Academy of Sciences Caribbean Scientific Union ISBN: 978-607-8379-29-3 Michael T. Clegg SPONSORED BY THE Coordinador de Proyecto Profesor Emérito, Universidad de California, Irvine IANAS Regional Report November 2017 RESUMEN Challenges and Opportunities for Food and Nutrition Security in the Americas The View of the Academies of Sciences CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 1 Challenges and Opportunities for Food and Nutrition Security in the Americas The View of the Academies of Sciences Free access to this book and the Summary of this publication at: www.ianas.org FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY 2 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES The Inter-American Network of Academies of Sciences (IANAS) is a regional network of Academies of Sciences created to support cooperation to strengthen science and technology as tools for advancing research and development, prosperity and equity in the Americas. IANAS is regional member of the Inter Academy Partnership (IAP) IANAS Co-Chairs: Juan Asenjo and Jeremy McNeil Project Coordinator: Michael Clegg Editorial Committee: Michael Clegg (Chair, USA), Eduardo Bianchi (Argentina), Jeremy McNeil (Canada), Luis Herrera Estrella (Mexico), Katherine Vammen (Nicaragua). Chapter Coordinators: Eduardo Bianchi (Argentina); Einstein Tejada Vélez (Bolivia); Evaldo Vilelo (Brazil); John Klironomos (Canada); Mark Wuddivira (Caribbean); Elizabeth Hodson (Colombia); Víctor Jiménez (Costa Rica); María Teresa Cornide (Cuba); Carlos Muñoz Schick (Chile); Helmut Betancourt and José Tallaj (Dominican Republic); Jenny Ruales (Ecuador); Noel Solomons (Guatemala); Carolina Alduvín (Honduras); Sol Ortiz (Mexico); Jorge Huete (Nicaragua); Bruno Zachrisson (Panama); Gustavo González (Peru); Michael Allen (USA); María Cristina Cabrera (Uruguay); María Soledad Tapia (Venezuela) Book Coordination and IANAS Executive Director: Adriana de la Cruz Molina Spanish copy editor and Spanish proofreading: Ma. Areli Montes Suárez (Mexico) and authors of the chapters Translation and English copy editor: Suzanne Stephens (UK) English copy editor and English proofreading: Margaret Ellen Reynolds Adler (US) Special support for the Brazilian chapter: Jeremy McNeil (Canada) and Geraldo Bueno Martha Junior (Brazil) Editorial Design and support during the printing process for the English and Spanish publications: Víctor Daniel Moreno Alanís Cover Design: Víctor Daniel Moreno Alanís (Mexico) Web Design: Víctor Daniel Moreno Alanís (Mexico) and Viridiana González (Mexico) Administrative Support from Germany: Jana Hinz and Anja Geißler, The Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina Administrative Support from Mexico: Alejandra Muñoz Buenrostro (2017), Verónica Barroso (2016), Luis Arturo Dassaev (2016 Mexico Workshop Organization), IANAS Printed by The Inter-American Network of Academies of Sciences (IANAS-IAP) Calle Cipreses s/n, Km 23.5 de la Carretera Federal Mxico-Cuernavaca, 14400 Tlalpan, Distrito Federal, Mexico. The Federal Ministry of Education and Research (German: Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung BMBF) Heinemannstraße 253175 Bonn and the German National Academy of Sciences-Leopoldina. And the Inter Academy Partnership (IAP). November 2017 © The Inter-American Network of Academies of Sciences (IANAS); Inter Academy Partnership (IAP); The Federal Ministry of Education and Research Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF); German National Academy of Sciences-Leopoldina. ISBN: 978-607-8379-29-3 Printed in México Free public access of this book in English and Spanish at www.ianas.org This publication is available at http://www.ianas.org and Open Access under the Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/). For the printed and electronic book the present license applies exclusively to the text content of the publication. 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FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 3 Challenges and Opportunities for Food and Nutrition Security in the Americas The View of the Academies of Sciences Federal Ministry of Education and Research The Inter-American Network of Academies of Sciences Leopoldina National Akademie der Wissenschaften The InterAcademy Partnership FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY 244 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES Challenges for Food and Nutrition Security in the Americas Costa Rica and its commitment to sustainability Costa Rica should support development models that consider nature; its production systems should be more environmentally friendly by reducing the use of agrochemicals, and making more and better use of soil, pest control, water resources, waste and residue management practices Coffee plantation in Naranjo region, Costa Rica © Shutterstock COSTA RICA CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 245 Costa Rica Summary [1] Víctor M. Jiménez, [2] Catalina Acuña-Gutiérrez, As a small nation with high biodiversity and an extensive system of [3] Marilín Agüero, [4] Alfredo Alvarado, protected areas, Costa Rica will face particular challenges regarding [5] María L. Ávila-Agüero, [6] Marialis Blanco, food security over the next few years. Thus, whatever development [7] Marcela Dumani, [8] Patricia Esquivel, model the country chooses, it must achieve a compromise between [9] Andrés Gatica-Arias, [10] Eric Guevara, conservation and production (agricultural, energy and so on). Although [11] Andrés Hernández-Pridybailo, the country’s malnutrition levels are below 5%, socioeconomic [12] Raquel Hernández, [13] Andrea Holst, asymmetries - which have been increasing in recent years - put a [14] Karol Madriz, [15] Julio F. Mata-Segreda, growing proportion of the population at risk. Costa Rica also has a high [16] Olman Quirós-Madrigal, disaster risk (due to volcanism, seismicity and climatic events), which [17] Ricardo Radulovich, [18] Álvaro Salas-Chaves, is likely to be increased by climate change. Moreover, the country’s [19] Paúl Solórzano-Cascante population is aging and growing very little in absolute numbers, which is also reflected in the predominance of farmers growing older. It is important to mention that the country relies heavily on food imports, mainly of basic grains, to cover the needs of its population. Food production uses a large amount of imported seed and propagating material, which are often not suited to local conditions, as well as very intensive use of agrochemicals, with negative consequences for health and the environment. Over the next few years, it will be crucial to maintain solid public higher-education and research structures in the agricultural field. Although there is no shortage of water in the country in general, water is unevenly distributed at certain times and between regions. Another important challenge is that overweight and obesity show an increasing and alarming upward trend. Costa Rica should A comprehensive approach considering many actors and positions is required to ensure food and nutrition in Costa Rica over support development the next fifty years. To this end and to be consistent with a long models that consider tradition that has earned the country recognition, the government nature; its production should continue with its policies to conserve protected areas and biodiversity. At the same time, it should increase productivity and systems should be yields in land with a clear agricultural vocation. This is important for more environmentally reducing dependence on imported food in order to meet the basic needs of the country’s inhabitants. In order to achieve broad access friendly by reducing the to sufficient nutritious food, it is essential to reduce the gaps in the use of agrochemicals, and population’s socioeconomic conditions. Production systems should be making more and better use more environmentally friendly by reducing the use of agrochemicals, and making more and better use of soil, and integrated pest, water of soil, pest control, water resources, waste and residue-management practices. It will also be resources, waste and residue important to encourage, where possible, the use of local species or management practices those adapted to local conditions, some of which are little known and underutilized, which are important for the diet beyond caloric intake (as a source of micronutrients, vitamins and functional compounds). This requires considering the enormous biodiversity present in the country and encouraging genetic improvement in order to reduce dependence on imported seed and propagation materials, since COSTA RICA 246 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES these were often developed for other climatic country must consider a wide range of options and edaphic conditions, as well as different for agricultural production with a view toward productive systems. It is essential to achieve ensuring food and nutrition for its inhabitants. This greater differentiation of products that follow framework must consider all the (bio)technological certain quality standards in terms of production, options, provided they do not conflict with the marketing and nutritional value over the next environment and health. It is also essential to few years, and for this to provide some form of continue and intensify programs that seek to competitive advantage. Prevention and mitigation promote healthy eating habits and encourage measures must be taken against disasters that physical activity among the population. can be caused by specific events (hurricanes, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc.) or climate change. It will be important to continue the construction and maintenance of water collection, storage I. Features of the country and supply works to reduce water shortages in particular areas and at specific times. Agricultural a. Physical dimensions, inventory of cropland, activity must be made attractive so that young landscape and environmental diversity people choose to remain in the countryside Costa Rica, which has not had an army since rather than migrating to cities. State funding 1948, is the third smallest country in Central for research on priority issues for the country America, with an area of 51,100 km². In the past must be increased, and incentives created so 50 years the largest area devoted to agricultural that the private sector also becomes interested activities was achieved in 1984, with 53.8% in supporting research. It is also necessary to of the national territory. This figure gradually continue promoting high-level human resource declined year after year until 2000, and thereafter training, preferably at top universities abroad, to remained fairly stable until it reached 35.6% in promote agricultural research. Likewise, technical 2013 (Figure 1). Forest cover has increased since and vocational education must be promoted with 2000, reaching 51% in 2010. That same year, the participation of various institutions (such as 1.54% of the land under cultivation was irrigated. the Instituto Nacional de Aprendizaje, technical Despite its small size, the country boasts a and vocational colleges and dual education). The diversity of landscapes ranging from those at sea [1] Víctor M. Jiménez, Coordinator: Center for Grain and Seed Research (CIGRAS) and Institute for Agricultural Research (IIA), University of Costa Rica, 2060 San Pedro, Costa Rica; Food Security Center, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany, victor.jimenez@ucr.ac.cr [2] Catalina Acuña- Gutiérrez, Center for Grain and Seed Research (CIGRAS), University of Costa Rica, catalina.acuna@ucr.ac.cr [3] Marilín Agüero, Institute of Agricultural Research (IIA), University of Costa Rica, marilin.aguero@ucr.ac.cr [4] Alfredo Alvarado, Center for Agronomic Research, University of Costa Rica, alfredo.alvarado@ucr.ac.cr [5] María L. Ávila-Agüero, Head of Infectology Service, National Children’s Hospital, San José, Costa Rica, avilaaguero@ gmail.com [6] Marialis Blanco, Mayca/Sysco, Alajuela, Costa Rica, marialis55@gmail.com [7] Marcela Dumani, School of Nutrition, University of Costa Rica, marcela.dumani@ucr.ac.cr [8] Patricia Esquivel, School of Food Technology, University of Costa Rica, patricia.esquivel@ucr.ac.cr [9] Andrés Gatica-Arias, School of Biology, University of Costa Rica, andres.gatica@ucr.ac.cr [10] Eric Guevara, Center for Grain and Seed Research (CIGRAS), and School of Agronomy, University of Costa Rica, eric.guevara@ucr.ac.cr [11] Andrés Hernández-Pridybailo, Center for Grain and Seed Research (CIGRAS), and School of Agronomy, University of Costa Rica, andres.hernandezpridybailo@ucr.ac.cr [12] Raquel Hernández, School of Nutrition, University of Costa Rica, and Municipality of Santa Ana, San José, Costa Rica, hernandezcor@hotmail.com [13] Andrea Holst, Center for Grain and Seed Research (CIGRAS), University of Costa Rica, andrea.holst@ucr.ac.cr [14] Karol Madriz, Ministry of Health, San José, Costa Rica, kmadrizmo@ gmail.com [15] Julio F. Mata-Segreda, School of Chemistry, University of Costa Rica. julio.mata@ucr.ac.cr [16] Olman Quirós-Madrigal, School of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, University of Costa Rica, olman.quiros@ucr.ac.cr [17] Ricardo Radulovich, School of Agricultural Engineering and Biosystems, University of Costa Rica, ricardo.radulovich@ucr.ac.cr [18] Álvaro Salas-Chaves, Medical Specialist in Health Service Administration, Member of the Board of Directors of the Central America Health Care Initiative (CAHI), alvarosalas158@gmail.com [19] Paúl Solórzano-Cascante, Center for Grain and Seed Research (CIGRAS), and School of Agronomy, University of Costa Rica, 2060, San Pedro CR, paul.solorzanocascante@ucr.ac.cr COSTA RICA CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 247 Figure 1. Area of country used for agricultural activities (%) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Source: The World Bank level, through medium-sized mountains and two years earlier, reflecting the tendency to the Central Valley (900-1,200 meters above have fewer children. The low birth rate, coupled sea level [masl]), where most of the population with high life expectancy at birth (78.8 years lives, to the high mountains - located mainly in in 2015), mean that Costa Rica’s population is the Central Volcanic Cordillera and the Cordillera aging. It is estimated that by 2025, 11.5% of the de Talamanca (where Cerro Chirripó is located, population will be 65 or older (600,000 people). its 3,819 meters making it the highest one in In assessing these numbers it is important the country). The diversity of microclimates to consider the situation of immigration in Costa generated by such heterogeneous landscapes, Rica. In 2011, 9% of the country's population was as well as its geographic position, means that, born abroad. Nearly 75%, or 386,000, were from despite its small area (0.03% of the earth’s total), Nicaragua, 4.3% from Colombia, 4.1% from the the country is home to nearly 4% of the species US, 2.9% from Panama and 2.4% from El Salvador. thought to exist worldwide, making it one of Here it is important to note, for example, that the the 20 countries with the greatest biodiversity. overall fertility rate of women of childbearing age All this is protected by an extensive system of certain other nationalities is higher than that of of conservation areas, which guarantees the Costa Ricans. protection of more than 25% of the country’s By 2030, Costa Rica is likely to have a territory. population of 5.6 million, a 15% increase over 2015. This will confirm the decline in the b. Demographic features and future trends population growth rate due to a decrease in the On June 30, 2016, according to the Instituto birth rate and probably a reduction in immigration. Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC), the estimated population of Costa Rica was c. Status of Food and Nutrition Security 4,890,379, with 22% of the population under FAO data show that undernourishment levels 14, 17% ages 15 to 24, 44% between 25 and in Costa Rica are below 5% and have remained 54, 9% between 55 and 64, and 8% ages stable over the past 25 years (FAO, 2015a). 65 and over. By 2013 the overall fertility rate Global malnutrition (proportion of children under was 1.76 children per woman, which is much 5 with low weight for their age) for the 2005- lower than the replacement level (2.1 children 2012 period in Costa Rica was 1.1%, the second per woman) and also 5.3% lower than it was lowest in Latin America after Chile. By 2015, COSTA RICA Area (%) 1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 248 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES food availability was 2,960 calories per day per banana, sugar cane, rice, pineapple, orange, tilapia person, which is more than enough to meet and milk. Compared with the situation in the the population’s minimal requirements. rest of Central America, subsistence agriculture Most indicators show a clear trend toward a is extremely limited in Costa Rica (IICA, 2011). decline in the proportion of the population at risk of food insecurity, particularly of malnutrition in e. Self-sufficiency in agricultural production children under 5 and chronic malnutrition (FAO, Costa Rica is not self-sufficient in terms of the 2015b). However, the latest report of the State production of the food consumed by its popula- of the Nation (Estado de la Nación), delivered in tion. In basic grains, particularly rice, beans and November 2015, indicates that the country does corn, there is a clear trend toward a decrease in not have statistics that allow it to “accurately local production and an increase in the amount estimate its degree of food and nutrition security or imported. A similar pattern can be observed in insecurity”, coupled with a situation of dependency vegetable production. Conversely, from 2005 to and vulnerability in its food availability, as well as 2011 there was a 65% increase in fresh fruit pro- socioeconomic asymmetries affecting food access duction, with a 20% increase in the area planted. (Programa Estado de la Nación en Desarrollo Livestock production also saw an increase in the Humano Sostenible, 2015). Accordingly, a sector period 2003-2007 (Ministerio de Salud, 2011). of the population does not have its right to food guaranteed, since it faces difficulties in relation to f. Main export/import crops and markets food access and availability. In 2014, the Costa Rican agricultural sector accounted for 22.8% of the value of the country’s d. Farming Modalities exports ($2,574.4 million USD), while the livestock Data from the 2014 Agricultural Census show and fishing sectors contributed 3.2% ($366.5 that Costa Rica has a total of 557,888.6 hectares million USD) (PROCOMER, 2014). 2012 Statistics (ha) under perennial agricultural crop cultivation show that the country’s main agricultural products (excluding forest plantations) and 133,249.8 ha are bananas, pineapples and coffee and that it planted with annual crops (Table 1) (INEC, 2015a). imports yellow corn, soybeans and wheat (Figure Smaller productive units (farms) tend to grow 2), all essential to the country’s food security. crops such as maize, beans, vegetables, palm trees, fruit trees, coffee and some livestock (mainly g. Potential sources of instability in Food dual-purpose), whereas larger farms produce and Nutrition Security Costa Rica is prone to natural disasters, such as volcanic eruptions, drought, floods, hurricanes Table 1. Main agricultural crops in Costa Rica and earthquakes, which, according to the according to the planted area, 2014 GlobalRisksReport 2016, makes it the world’s Area fifth country most exposed to natural disasters Crop (% of total area and eighth on the risk index. Although over 120 for this type of crop) mostly extinct volcanic formations have been Coffee 23.8 identified, there are five active volcanoes, three Oil palm 18.8 very close to major population centers, whose Perennial Sugar cane 18.4 (557 888 ha) emanations not only have a direct effect on Banana 14.6 people’s health, but may also affect crops. Pineapple 10.6 Although since the time historical records Rice 43.9 began to be compiled, Costa Rica had not directly Bean 14.6 experienced a hurricane hit until Hurricane Otto in Yearly Corn 11.8 2016, it has suffered their indirect impact, mainly (133 249 ha) in the form of heavy rains and floods, as well as Cassava 11.3 the effects of El Niño and La Niña. Moreover, the Cantaloupe 4.4 country’s location in a subduction zone where three COSTA RICA CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 249 Figure 2. Main agricultural products that Costa Rica exported and imported in 2012 United States United States Mexico European Union European Union Nicaragua China Panama Nicaragua Guatemala Guatemala Mexico Canada Dominican Republic Chile Canada Brazil China Panama Colombia El Salvador Imports Exports Source: FAO, 2012 large tectonic plates interact (Cocos, Caribbean to markets. This is crucial because farmers in and Nazca) means that earthquakes are very Costa Rica are getting older, since young people frequent, sometimes with magnitudes of between do not wish to remain in the countryside. 7.0 and 7.7. These earthquakes, as well as major meteorological phenomena, have repeatedly caused severe damage to road infrastructure and communications. At the same time, it is estimated II. Institutional environment that anthropogenic climate change will cause a nationwide temperature rise, with an increase a. Universities and Research Institutes in rainfall in the Caribbean and southern regions Data from 1999 indicate that 60% of agricultural of Costa Rica and a decrease in N and NE areas research in Central America was conducted in (CCAFS, 2014). Costa Rica, with a very high percentage in the four public universities at that time - University h. Main agricultural challenges of Costa Rica (UCR); National University (UNA); The greatest challenges for agriculture in Costa Technological Institute of Costa Rica (ITCR), and Rica, in terms of food security, are probably the State Distance University (UNED) – and linked to its current agroexport model, which mostly at UCR. Founded in 2008, the National has forced the country to import a considerable Technical University (UTN) has also become percentage of its basic foodstuffs. It is also increasingly involved in the agricultural sphere. important to achieve more environmentally- Public universities usually have relatively highly friendly production, which involves a careful qualified academic staff, a significant proportion review of agrochemical use, waste management of whom have completed postgraduate and residual biomass use. The use of state- training abroad. These institutions have been of-the-art technologies and varieties adapted growing their infrastructure as a result of which to local conditions is also crucial to raising some centers and institutes have the latest yields, since in some crops, these are far below technological advances in their respective world standards. Water management, for both fields. The country also has public non-state irrigation and drainage, must be examined in research centers focused on specific crops, regard to climate change. Socioeconomic aspects financed by the producers themselves, such as must be considered, especially farmers’ access the Sugarcane Research and Extension Division COSTA RICA 250 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES (Departamento de Investigación y Extensión de of Agricultural Technology (Instituto Nacional la Caña de Azúcar - DIECA), the Center for Coffee de Innovación y Transferencia en Tecnología Research (Centro de Investigaciones en Café - Agropecuaria - INTA) was created within MAG, CICAFE) and The National Banana Corporation which took over the functions of the Research (Corporación Bananera Nacional - CORBANA). The Management (Chaves-Solera, 2011). National Biodiversity Institute (Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad - INBio) is a non-governmental, i. Research Capacity Development. The country non-profit organization focusing on research has a limited number of trained personnel. and management regarding the country’s Moreover, low investment in agricultural biodiversity. The recently founded National research is a serious handicap to implementing Biotechnology Innovation Center (Centro Nacional new technologies. There is also an urgent need de Innovaciones Biotecnológicas - CENIBiot) to prioritize working lines of a multidisciplinary seeks to link the country’s business and academic nature, particularly those that foster interaction sectors in order to scale-up agroindustrial between the private and public sectors, in research projects that will boost productivity. a model that includes state universities and The Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher other centers. It is important to note that the Education Center (Centro Agronómico Tropical existing infrastructure means that work is de Investigación y Enseñanza - CATIE), the Inter- carried out on a limited scale. Investment is American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture therefore required to enable research to be (Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para undertaken on a larger scale. la Agricultura - IICA), the EARTH University, ii. Local strengths. In addition to the fundamental the Tropical Science Center (Centro Científico role of public universities in training qualified Tropical - CCT) and the Organization for Tropical professionals, as well as the research they Studies (Organización para Estudios Tropicales conduct on current issues of enormous - OTS) are international organizations located importance for the agri-food sector, the in Costa Rica, which have been important country has a number of strengths worth players in the country’s agricultural research. highlighting. On the one hand, the production of basic research as a result of projects owned b. National Agricultural Research System by state universities and/or in cooperation Although there were previous programs and with institutions abroad has allowed the initiatives, the current structure of the state generation of knowledge which in many cases regarding agricultural research dates back to is used in practical applications that have a 1996, when the Ministry of Agriculture and favorable impact on the sector. There is also Livestock (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería - the knowledge gained from perennial crops MAG) set up the National System of Agricultural over time, resulting of many years of research, Research and Technology Transfer (Sistema which made the country a leading producer of Nacional de Investigación y Transferencia de crops such as coffee, bananas and pineapple. Tecnología Agropecuaria - SNITTA) to promote iii. Scientific collaboration networks inside technological changes in the sector, as well as the and outside the country. RedCONARE is an Foundation for the Development and Promotion advanced research and education network of of Research and Transfer of Agro-Technology the National Council of University Presidents (Fundación para el Fomento y Promoción de (Consejo Nacional de Rectores - CONARE), la Investigación y Transferencia de Tecnología in which the country’s public universities Agropecuaria de Costa Rica - FITTACORI), as participate. Through this network, the country a private, non-profit entity for public utility is linked to RedCLARA, which develops and that looks for resources from national agencies operates the only advanced Internet network and international organizations to undertake in the Americas. The country also participates projects in the agricultural sphere. In 2001, the in several international networks linked to National Institute for Innovation and Transfer the agri-food field, such as: the Cooperative COSTA RICA CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 251 Regional Potato Program (Programa periodically publishes information concerning Regional Cooperativo de Papa), organized the condition of forest-related activities and and supported by the International Potato resources in Costa Rica. Center (CIP), the Regional Food Security and Nutrition Programme for Central c. Development of skilled workforce and state America (Programa Regional en Seguridad of national education systems Alimentaria y Nutricional para Centroamérica In Costa Rica, both primary and secondary - PRESANCA II) and the Regional Programme education (for a total of 11-12 years, depending on for Food and Nutritional Security Information the modality) are compulsory and free in the public Systems (Programa Regional de Sistemas education system. In 2012, 91.1% of elementary de Información en Seguridad Alimentaria students and 87.3% of middle school students y Nutricional - PRESISAN), both funded by attended public schools and high schools. By the European Union (EU) and run by the 2012, practically 100% of the population of the General Secretariat of the Central American corresponding age had completed elementary Integration System (Secretaría General del education while 75% had finished middle school Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana - (Castro-Valverde 2013). For diversified education, SG SICA). It is also important to consider the which includes the last two to three years of additional efforts that have allowed public high school, there are several options including higher-education institutions in Costa Rica to scientific, humanistic, artistic, environmental, become involved in international networks. sports and other institutions. Professional technical An example is the University of Costa Rica, education includes the following modalities: which acts as regional coordinator for Latin trade and services, industrial and agricultural. In America of the Food Security Center of the addition to the five state universities mentioned University of Hohenheim in Germany with earlier, the country has over 50 private universities the participation of partners in Thailand, the approved by the National Council of Private Philippines, Kenya and Benin. Higher Education (Consejo Nacional de Enseñanza iv. Access to and maintenance of databases Superior Universitaria Privada- CONESUP). for monitoring farming systems. As for There are over 20 public and private higher databases related to the sector, MAG education institutions that offer technical degrees hosts the Costa Rican Agricultural Sector (instituciones parauniversitarias) approved by the Information System (Sistema de Información Higher Education Council (Consejo Superior de del Sector Agropecuario Costarricense - Educación). There is also the National Learning InfoAgro), which provides updated statistics Institute (Instituto Nacional de Aprendizaje - INA), on the economy, trade and agricultural a free, public, autonomous entity, created in 1965 production (www.infoagro.go.cr). INEC tools to promote and develop professional training to enable users to find useful information and education for those ages 15 to 20 who have for the agricultural, trade and health sectors successfully completed at least sixth grade. include the National Information System on Food and Nutrition Security (Sistema Nacional d. Relative contributions of the public de Información en Seguridad Alimentaria y and private sectors Nutricional - sistemas.inec.cr/snisan), which In 2014, Costa Rica invested 0.58% of GDP in provides the most significant indicators on Research and Development, an increase of 0.02% nutritional status, anthropometry, and access over the previous year, yet still well below the to and the availability of food and basic average for Latin America and the Caribbean services. The Costa Rican Forest Resources (0.82%). As for human resources, in 2014, the Information System (Sistema de Información country had 1.1 researchers (equivalent to full days) de los Recursos Forestales de Costa Rica - per thousand inhabitants of the economically SIREFOR) is a national program that collects, active population, above the regional average of processes, analyzes, systematizes and 0.8, and surpassed only by Argentina and Brazil. COSTA RICA 252 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES The contribution of public funds to research overexploited aquifers has also been exacerbated, and development, provided mainly by state not only by the extreme water demand for new universities and the public sector, was 67% in housing and tourist developments and insufficient 2013 ($184 million), more than twice that of recharge, but also by saline intrusion in Pacific the business sector (32%). The remaining 1% coastal aquifers. The high cost of developing was provided by non-profit organizations. new sources of water in the required amounts - especially in a context of the depletion of e. Outlook for the future traditional sources - coupled with the lack of water The Costa Rican Government, through in the dry season, pose a short-term challenge, the Ministry of Science, Technology and which will probably require the enactment of Telecommunications (MICITT), expects to reach new laws. However, despite all the planned and the leading country in the region in terms of the ongoing efforts, in the future it may be necessary number of researchers equivalent to full days to implement non-conventional measures such per thousand inhabitants of the economically as geo-engineering. This will imply, at least, active population: Brazil (1.2). Regarding more mega- water collection works in areas technological innovation, it would be important with high precipitation and rain flow, probably to strengthen research with state and private in conjunction with the country’s hydroelectric funding. The Costa Rican Development Bank generation and with the ultimate goal of providing System (Banca para el Desarrollo) should water to cities. On the Pacific coast, especially establish a credit plan for innovation, and the North and Central parts, the situation will be encourage the development of products that extremely severe and it may become necessary take advantage of the country’s biodiversity, to implement seawater desalination plants. often underused and barely researched. In terms of human resource training, university b. Soil resources and challenges education must be renewed by reviewing the over the next 50 years curricula, which in many cases, have not been The variety of Costa Rican soils is as great as that changed for years, and by identifying and of the agroecosystems developed in the various establishing new, more interdisciplinary degree ecological niches by domestic and international programs. It is also important to strengthen farmers and researchers who have encouraged technical training in the country. The “Dual the use of increasingly environmentally-friendly Education” proposal (currently supported by agricultural management practices. Past soil- Germany) is an alternative worth pursuing. management mistakes serve as lessons to prevent their repetition, although they still prevail in large- scale, industrial export crop plantations. Thus, new agricultural practices - such as the use of III. Resource and Ecosystem Features soil inoculants (Rhizobium and mycorrhiza) and compost, minimal tillage, planting associated a. Water resources and challenges crops and greenhouse operations - are common in in the next 50 years the Costa Rican landscape. These new approaches The country has experienced severe water are expected to improve soil conservation, both shortages, mainly for human consumption from the point of view of chemical contamination in the Central and Central and North Pacific and that of physical erosion. It is therefore regions, with a seasonal regime of up to five essential for studies in the next fifty years months without rain between November and to continue exploring areas such as carbon May. Because of the total amount of rainfall, sequestration, degraded land reclamation, organic/ there should not be any water shortage in any biological agriculture, inoculant use, nutrient region. It is therefore essential to improve water use by plants and bioindicators development, management and expand the area under irrigation all with the participation of a greater number of with the same water available. The problem of farmers in the generation of new knowledge. COSTA RICA CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 253 c. Energy challenges covered areas, hunting and the introduction The electric power market in particular is a cen- of exotic species. In 2015, the country issued tralized system within the largest generator, buyer a National Biodiversity Policy for the next 15 and state distributor: the Costa Rican Institute of years with four main pillars. The second one Electricity (Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad briefly mentions the agricultural field, indicating - ICE). Energy availability in Costa Rica could soon that “policies and/or measures that promote be limited by its (in)efficient use, resulting from cul- market access and the linkage of products or tural, material and political peculiarities that are not services to environmental characteristics (organic unique to the country. The following considerations certification, sustainable tourism, coffee, cocoa, support the previously mentioned statements: fishing, aquaculture and livestock under good i. As for energy for transport, aspects related to environmental and social practices)” will be poorly designed road infrastructure, as well as encouraged (CONAGEBIO/SINAC, 2015). bad driving behavior and insufficient concience related to the use of public transportation, e. Forestry sector trends impose a high entropic cost on the use of The country’s forest cover has doubled in the thermomechanical energy and obviously the last three decades, from approximately 25% of finances assigned for importing fossil fuels. the territory in the 1980s to 52.38% in 2013. ii. In the agroindustrial field, the use of process This is thought to be a result of the prohibition heat generation and electric cogeneration of land-use change established by Forest Law is limited by significant thermodynamic 7575, passed in 1996, the implementation of the inefficiencies. However, efforts are currently Environmental Services Payment Program (PPSA) underway in the water-food-energy nexus, in 1997 and a change in the national productive which suggest that agroindustrial waste as system due to the reduction in extensive livestock well as alternative forms of alternative energy production, for example. However, pressure in the rural sector will soon be used. remains on the urban areas in the country’s iii. Bad practices regarding electricity use at home Greater Metropolitan Area to expand. It is also and in businesses continue to exist. Although important to consider the ecological quality of a number of state institutions have developed forest cover since, outside large national parks, it certain social communication initiatives in this is highly fragmented and secondary in nature. regard, they have not been continuous. iv. Public and institutional policies have a number f. Potential impacts of climate change of flaws. The 2015-2030 National Energy Plan Factors such as climate change and extreme presents some timid proposals to “reward” weather events pose challenges which, if left companies that demonstrate improvements unaddressed, could increase the likelihood of in energy-use efficiency, especially when food and nutrition insecurity for the public. It is it comes to renewable sources such as therefore useful to know the reality of the country biomass. However, there are no efficient legal in this respect and to identify specific challenges, mechanisms to sanction those who fail to in order to obtain information for the debate on comply with them. the strategies required (Programa Estado de la Nación en Desarrollo Humano Sostenible, 2015). d. Conflicts and challenges in relation The National Meteorological Institute (Instituto to biodiversity Meteorológico Nacional - IMN) has been studying In Costa Rica, the main causes of biodiversity the possible impacts of climate change on Costa loss and deterioration have been found to be Rican agricultural activities, first with the Central linked to the growth of urban centers, lack of American Program on Climate Change (Programa good agricultural practices (increased use of Centroamericano sobre Cambio Climático - PCCC) mechanization, agrochemicals, loss of live fences, and then through the Netherlands Climate Change etc.), illegal logging and forest fires, and to a Studies Assistance Programme. As a result of lesser extent, to the fragmentation of natural events related to climate change, many cantons COSTA RICA 254 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES Map 1. Ecological Regions of Costa Rica will lose areas suitable for crops that are the basis of their economy, while the socioeconomic conditions prevailing in others will enable them to address the situation more effectively. It is important to consider the sensitivity of various crops to changes in climatic conditions. Of the main crops in Costa Rica, coffee and beans are probably among the most sensitive, while sugar cane, corn and cassava are the most tolerant. In order to encourage certain productive activities, the country established the first PPSA system in the region and subsequently passed Law 8408, in Ecological regions 2004, which recognizes environmental benefits Tropical Dry Forest in the agricultural sector (Bouroncle et al., 2015). Tropical Humid Forest Very Humid Tropical Forest g. Developing resilience to extreme events Premontane Wet Forest The Costa Rican agricultural sector has been working Premontane Forest Very Humid on the implementation of initiatives for over two Premontane Rainforest decades with the aim of conserving natural resources Montano Low Humid Forest and increasing agricultural production. In the early Very Humid Forest Montano Low 1990s, technical principles were established to Lowland Rain Forest increase productivity, increase vegetation cover, Very Humid Montano Forest conserve soil and improve conditions for water and Montano Rain Forest carbon cycles. During the first decade of the 21st Subalpine Rain Forest century, climate-smart agriculture was promoted through the Program Promoting Sustainable Agricultural Production (Programa de Fomento de Map 2. Extension of permanent crops in Costa Rica la Producción Agropecuaria Sostenible - PFPAS), focusing mainly on coffee, sugar cane, vegetables and beef and dairy farming. Other programs designed to increase productivity and competitiveness, which consider aspects of mitigation, adaptation and resilience, are the National Organic Agriculture Program (Programa Nacional de Agricultura Orgánica), the Blue Flag Ecological Program (Programa Bandera Azul Ecológica), the National Plan for Sustainable and Healthy Gastronomy (Plan Nacional de Gastronomía Sostenible y Saludable), the Low Carbon Livestock Strategy (Estrategia para la Ganadería baja en Carbono), The Adaptation Fund (Fondo de Adaptación), Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) for coffee, cattle Extension of permanent crops (hectares) and sugar cane, the 2013-2030 Water Agenda 10000 and over and the BANACLIMA Program of CORBANA. From 5000 to less than 10000 From 1500 to less than 5000 From 500 to less than 1500 h. Outlook for the future Less than 500 In the context of population growth and other uses for water, such as irrigation and industry, Source: INEC. VI National Census of Agriculture, 2014 and given the uncertainty of the various climate- COSTA RICA CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 255 change scenarios, the next fifty years will Costa Rica began 22 years ago, for both research probably see a change in the country’s population and seed reproduction. From 1991 to 2012, the distribution. The relatively sparsely populated release into the environment, for experimental region of the Caribbean, with far more rainfall purposes or seed reproduction, was authorized than the Pacific, and without a defined dry for taro, corn, soybean, cotton, banana, rice, season, could become more important and pineapple and banana, with some of the following possibly a center of urban growth and industrial features: insect resistance; herbicide tolerance; development, as well as increased crop and resistance to diseases caused by fungi and livestock farming. As for energy, a key challenge viruses; slow maturation, and improvement of for its proper use is the achievement of optimal the nutritional quality of fruits. Thus, in 2012, energy-efficiency levels. Moreover, in order a total of 283.63 ha of genetically modified to ensure high, efficient levels of agricultural crops were authorized to be planted. Costa productivity, it is essential for the country to Rica does not yet produce genetically modified consider environmental aspects. In the short organisms for human or livestock consumption. term, food produced with good agricultural and It only produces seeds for export, which are social practices and the supporting certification not sold on the domestic market. For pests and will have a greater presence on the market. disease management through biotechnological strategies, Costa Rican companies have begun to commercialize biofungicides made from microorganisms with antagonistic action IV. Technology and Innovation on microorganisms that affect crops. a. The role of biotechnology b. New agricultural products According to a CENIBiot study, in Costa Rica, Novel agricultural products include plants that are agricultural biotechnology is the field in which currently underutilized, or new varieties resulting most research activities are carried out at public from genetic improvement. Public universities, R&D centers (46%) and companies (64%). particularly the UCR, are currently undertaking Biotechnology applications in the agricultural several projects designed to identify, evaluate field include in vitro culture for mass propagation and conserve tropical fruits that can make and the development of plants with particular important contributions to human nutrition, such characteristics through genetic engineering. as anona, pitaya, peach palm, papaya and guava. In Costa Rica, there are several plant tissue This institution also undertakes projects for the culture laboratories (both public and private) plant breeding of rice, beans, guava, papaya, dedicated to micropropagation - mainly through tomato and bell pepper. CATIE and CICAFE have meristems or nodal segments - of species such genetic improvement programs for cacao and as banana, strawberry, roots and tubers (potato, coffee, respectively. Last, the private sector has taro, cocoyam), oil palm, bamboo and various research initiatives for crops with economic and ornamental plants (such as orchids, anthuriums food importance such as the oil palm (ASD de and calla lilies). Moreover, particularly in public Costa Rica) and rice (Semillas del Nuevo Milenio university laboratories, research is being - FLAR). Many of the crops mentioned above conducted on other in vitro techniques, oriented provide the livelihood for many communities in mainly to genetic improvement, such as the Costa Rica, therefore, it is important to conduct culture and fusion of protoplasts –to produce research and develop them in order to guarantee new plant genotypes through the hybridization the purchasing power of the producers. of somatic cells-, cultivating haploid cells - which could reduce the time required to obtain c. Opportunities and obstacles new genotypes - and somatic embryos - which to the use of new technologies could lead to the use of synthetic seeds. The The country’s particular conditions offer a series cultivation of genetically modified organisms in of opportunities which, at the same time, pose COSTA RICA 256 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES challenges to the sustainable use of resources marine fisheries for local consumption has such as soil, water, marine ecosystems, forests declined considerably: 46% in just over a decade. and biodiversity in general. Thus, the research This is due to a number of reasons, including legal undertaken – both now and in the future – restrictions and regulations, competition with should also offer options to small farms to reduce imported aquaculture products, and declining fish losses and achieve proper waste management, in stocks. At present, aquaculture in ponds - by far addition to meeting increased demands. The doors the main aquaculture activity with about 30,000 should not be closed to new technological options, tons per year – has barely increased, either for particularly those derived from agricultural freshwater - tilapia being the main species and biotechnology, provided efforts are made to trout the second - or for brackish water - with minimize risk situations, particularly with respect white shrimp being the sole species. Although to the country's biodiversity. Although agricultural it has developed slowly, aquaculture directly in irrigation has advanced considerably - with about the sea has advanced over the previous decade. 100,000 ha currently under this system -, the Given the growing need for adaptation to climate advance of an irrigation culture that uses water change, marine aquaculture in the coming decades efficiently has been slow. An increase in the use of will be able to provide alternative food sources, more efficient irrigation systems, such as dripping particularly since it does not need freshwater. or micro-spraying, should be accompanied by Moreover, implementing techniques to improve intensification of production and diversification fish production, rather than merely restricting toward cash crops, as well as the use of advanced fishing - such as artificial repopulation with fast- techniques such as precision agriculture growing species and the use of fish aggregation and satellite monitoring. As for fertilization, devices - together with marine aquaculture, will opportunities include generalizing the use of more help turn the sea into a much more valuable environmentally-friendly technologies (fertigation resource, by promoting its conservation and and foliar products with microelements), extending proper management (Radulovich, 2008). the use of fertilization in the forestry sector, employing precision agriculture to adjust the dose of agrochemicals applied, updating and using the management plans for the national territory, V. Efficiency of food systems and strengthening rural education programs with curricula that incorporate new technologies. a. Perspectives of technological progress There are a number of obstacles that could in agricultural production hamper the implementation of new technologies. It is only through the development of appropriate Some have to do with opposition to varying technologies that it will be possible in the future to farming practices, even among large companies, increase agricultural production in harmony with as well as the existence of cumbersome nature. Thus, genetic improvement will allow the administrative and regulatory processes. It is also development of more nutritious varieties, with important to note that, regardless of the efforts lower input requirements and greater resistance/ made in recent years, there is a lack of economic tolerance to biotic and abiotic factors, which are support for research, as well as incentives to better adapted to the conditions expected as increase the number of professionals in science a result of climate change. Increasing the use and engineering, especially with higher degrees of productive systems that have not yet been (M.Sc. and Ph.D.). implemented in the country on a large scale could also be an alternative means of boosting d. Development of marine resources productivity. By 2012, only 5% of the country’s and aquaculture farms had agricultural production units under Despite the upward trend in domestic demand for protected environments (INEC, 2015a). The fish and other seafood with an annual per-capita development and exploitation of protected fish consumption of 7.2 kg, the output of domestic tropicalized environments could increase COSTA RICA CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 257 vegetable production. The fact that Costa Rica supply at-risk populations. Companies donate food is one of the countries with the highest use of and provide infrastructure, equipment, services agrochemicals per growing area provides an and strategic capacities to operate the scheme. The opportunity to modify agroecosystems in order Food Bank was declared an issue of public interest to promote greater diversity of species and by the government. The Costa Rican Network increase the biological interactions that facilitate for Food Loss and Waste Reduction (SaveFood biological pest and disease control. It is also Costa Rica) was set up in 2014. Studies have important to register new agrochemicals that are been carried out on dairy and tomato agrochains, more effective and environmentally-friendly so while attempts have been made to reduce that farmers have new production tools, and to waste in business and institutional kitchens. reinforce the use of good agricultural practices. d. Conflicts between food production b. Infrastructure needs and energy and fiber production Internal haulage in Costa Rica is largely undertaken Land use for the development of energy crops by road. Costa Rica’s road infrastructure is one to the detriment of food crops has become a of the densest in Latin America. However, its significant problem in some countries. Fortunately, functionality has virtually collapsed (62% is Costa Rica is protected from this situation, since classified as deficient or extremely deficient), Article 18 of Decree 35091 on liquid biofuels states it is largely concentrated in the Greater the priority of food production for human and Metropolitan Area and has very little room to animal consumption over biofuel production. This expand. As a complement to road transport, safeguard is also established in Article 23 of the the Costa Rican Railway Institute (Instituto draft of the new version of the decree, currently Costarricense de Ferrocarriles - INCOFER) must under development. Costa Rica looks forward reactivate freight transport between San José to become a “carbon-neutral” country. In other and the Pacific and Caribbean ports (Puntarenas words, net emissions of greenhouse gases into the and Limón, respectively), and expand the rail atmosphere should be equivalent to zero by 2021. network to other parts of the country, such as To this end, there are several programs and research Guanacaste. The country has already achieved projects on clean energy production to replace and continues to achieve significant progress the use of fossil fuels and reduce their imports. An in modernizing its ports, in both the Caribbean example of this is the Biofuel Development Program and the Pacific. However, work remains to be (Programa para el Desarrollo de Biocombustibles), done on port infrastructure and nearby road which aims to develop research projects on this traffic networks, since Costa Rica is one of the issue, to harness agroindustrial waste or use countries in the region ranked lowest in this products or by-products to create biofuels (SEPSA, respect. It is necessary to overhaul the storage 2011). Suitable crops include oil palm, castorbean, and drying infrastructure for grains and seeds, jatropha, sugar cane, bitter cassava and sorghum. particularly basic grains such as rice, beans and Other alternatives are also being explored, such corn. It is also important to rehabilitate irrigation as second-generation fuels, which are not part and drainage areas, and work on flood control of the food chain (such as used oil waste, straw and water transfer for irrigation. Laboratories and wood), as well as microalgae to obtain oil. must be set up to ensure that foods that are marketed, including basic grains, meet established quality and safety standards (SEPSA, 2008). VI. Health considerations c. Food-use problems and waste minimization In Costa Rica, 30% of the food produced is lost a. Foodborne diseases or wasted. Costa Rica’s Food Bank (Banco de For Costa Rica, food safety is a public health issue. Alimentos de Costa Rica), created in 2012, is a In 2003, Executive Decree No. 30945-S established private non-profit that seeks food donations to mandatory notification for 45 diseases, including COSTA RICA 258 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES some food- and waterborne ones, and classified Rican Social Security Fund (Caja Costarricense del these as salmonellosis, shigellosis, food and Seguro Social - CCSS) show alarming figures for marine- products poisoning, as well as cholera. the incidence and prevalence not only of obesity In 2015, approximately 312,000 cases of diarrhea but also of type 2 diabetes, arterial hypertension, were treated. Seventy-five people are estimated hypercholesterolemia, and triglyceride and uric- to die of diarrhea annually, mainly children under acid disorders. Accordingly, one of the areas of 5 and senior citizens. Since 2010, Costa Rica intervention described in the National Policy on has had a National Food Safety Policy (Política Food and Nutrition Security 2011-2021 (Política Nacional de Inocuidad de Alimentos) designed Nacional de SeguridadAlimentaria y Nutricional to “define and establish the general guidelines 2011-2021) of the Costa Rican Ministry of to be followed regarding the safety of produced, Health addresses overweight and obesity. processed, imported and marketed foods in order to ensure the protection of people’s health and c. Expected changes in eating patterns consumer rights” (Ministerio de Salud, 2011). Development strategies influence variations in eating patterns. In the case of Costa Rica, where b. Overeating the service sector has become a significant Data from the 2008-2009 National Nutrition pillar of the national economy, tourism has led Survey indicate that a high percentage of the to a significant change in eating patterns driven population is overweight (Figure 3), which precisely by the need to meet visitors’ needs. increases with age and is generally higher in The existence of better options for access to women than men. Among children under 5, 8.1% information (Internet, social networks, etc.) (height/weight indicator) are overweight. Studies has also caused clear changes in the general by both the Ministry of Health (Ministerio de Salud population’s eating patterns. New trends indicate - MS) and the Costa Rican Institute for Research that consumers are increasingly concerned about and Education on Nutrition and Health (Instituto convenience foods (that have been canned, Costarricense de Investigación y Enseñanza en frozen, precooked or minimally processed), and Nutrición y Salud - INCIENSA) and the Costa keen to eat foods with direct health beneficial Figure 3. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in population over 5 in Costa Rica, 2008-2009 80 70 Men (%) 60 Women (%) 50 40 30 20 10 0 5 to 12 13 to 19 20 to 44 45 to 64 Age (years) Source: National Nutrition Survey, 2008-2009 COSTA RICA Percentage of population CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 259 effects (because of their nutritional and functional trading companies must first buy the national properties) or differentiated foods (organic, ethnic, production and, once a declaration of shortages solidarity and so on). These changes in eating is issued, import permits are granted. patterns directly affect the various supply chains, whether they are wholesalers, supermarkets, b. Nutrition-sensitive agriculture retailers or even hotel chains. Food-supply In the quest for nutritionally sensitive agriculture strategies must change to meet these new trends. - which facilitates the availability of and access to healthy and nutritious food - Costa Rica is d. Toward a change of behavior now promoting the inclusion of sustainable diets in food and nutrition that consider aspects with a low environmental The efforts made by the Ministry of Public impact and contribute to food and nutrition Education (MEP) and other state institutions, as security, as well as healthy living. The country well as non-profit organizations, which seek to has contributed to nutrition education initiatives instill a culture of healthy eating in schoolchildren, through strategies such as urban gardens, will have an effect in the medium and long public spaces where crops are grown on a very terms and drive changes in behavior patterns small scale in order to educate consumers related to eating. As will be mentioned later, and promote agrochemical and pesticide-free Dietary Guidelines - an educational instrument agriculture for self-consumption. Initiatives, developed in the country by the Intersectoral both public and private, have combined to create Commission on Dietary Guidelines (Comisión educational, equitable and productive spaces Intersectorial de Guías Alimentarias) - can also under the principles of fair trade and sustainable contribute to the acquisition of good eating production, which result in differentiated habits by the population. Likewise, the College products at farmers’ markets. Costa Rica also of Nutritionists, in collaboration with Costa Rica has a National Plan for Sustainable and Healthy Institute of Technical Standards (Instituto de Gastronomy, led by the Costa Rican Chamber Normas Técnicas de Costa Rica - INTECO), has of Restaurants (Cámara Costarricense de proposed an initiative to achieve a positive change Restaurantes y Afines), with the collaboration in eating habits. This will improve the Costa of institutions such as MS and MAG. Rican population’s health by enabling them to eat according to their specific needs. This program, c. Policies that encourage called ProNutri, proposes that nutritionists technological innovation should be the drivers of change. The personalized In order to promote technological innovation nutritional prescription is made out in the CCSS' in Costa Rica, MICITT, as the governing body, public hospitals, in private hospitals and clinics has established a set of policies and actions and in public and private universities, as well as that seek to strengthen and diversify this field. private practices. Orthomolecular (personalized) Thus, the National Science and Technology nutrition is not yet available in the country. Fair Program (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología - PRONAFRCYT) builds learning processes, in collaboration with MEP, the National Council for Scientific and VII. Political considerations Technological Research (Consejo Nacional para Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas a. Subsidies and other agricultural policies - CONICIT) and public universities, which In Costa Rica, there are no direct subsidies for encourage interest in science and technology, agricultural production. Agricultural inputs and and the development of critical and creative equipment are imported tax-free. Tariffs are thinking in students. There is also the National applied to the imports of certain agricultural ExpoINGENERÍA Program, with the participation products, as is the case of rice, to defend and collaboration of MICITT, MEP and Intel national production. In the case of beans, Corporation, designed to encourage interest COSTA RICA 260 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES and curiosity in engineering. MICITT Incentive f. Policies to promote the consumption Fund supports funding of innovation, science and of healthy foods technology development projects. The MICITT There are a number of organizations in Costa Rica also has the PROPYME Fund to promote and whose goal is to promote healthy eating. On the improve the management and competitiveness one hand, there are intersectoral commissions that of small- and medium-sized businesses. promote healthy eating, such as the Intersectoral Commission on Dietary Guidelines (Comisión d. Human resource generation policies Intersectorial de Guías Alimentarias - CIGA), In terms of human capital formation, MEP’s which develops specific guidelines for the various Department of Technical Education and age groups in the population, and the “Red 5 al Entrepreneurship (Dirección de Educación Técnica Día”, which develops strategies to promote the y Capacidades Emprendedoras - DETCE) seeks consumption of fruit and vegetables. The School to continuously train and provide opportunities Health and Nutrition Commission (Comisión to improve skills for the student population in de Salud y Nutrición Escolar) is responsible for vocational technical education programs in the coordinating the School Health and Nutrition third cycle and diversified education. Specifically Program (Programa de Salud y Nutrición Escolar). in the agri-food sector, there is a trend toward Institutions offering food service include the strengthening human resources. The strategy Centers of Education and Nutrition and the is geared toward technical careers and there is Centers for Child Nutrition and Integral Attention acceptance toward new degree programs and (Centros de Educación y Nutrición y Centros proposing new disciplines. Some of these, such Infantiles de Nutrición y Atención Integral - CEN- as biotechnology and the development and use of CINAI), the National Network of Child Care and precision farming equipment, are part of the new Development (Red Nacional de Cuido y Desarrollo trends in this regard. Public universities, as well Infantil - REDCUDI) and school cafeterias. One as other institutions mentioned earlier, participate of the areas of intervention of the National in this human resource training, with a significant Food and Nutrition Security Policy 2011-2021 contribution from INA and technical colleges. (Política Nacional de Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutrición 2011-2021) of the MS deals with eating e. Policies that seek to redesign habits and healthy lifestyles. The MS itself, in agricultural ecology coordination with the National Breastfeeding The goals of the Policies for the Agricultural Sector Commission (Comisión Nacional de Lactancia and the Development of Rural Territories 2015- Materna), and national and international health 2018 (Políticas para el Sector Agropecuario y el guidelines and policies, passed the Public Policy Desarrollo de los Territorios Rurales 2015-2018) on Breastfeeding for Costa Rica (Política Pública include the redesign of agricultural ecology. The de Lactancia Materna para Costa Rica) (Ministerio aim is to define joint strategies among the public, de Salud, 2011). The MEP’s School Child and private and financial sectors, in order to incor- Adolescent Food and Nutrition Programme porate the necessary financial resources for the (Programa de Alimentación y Nutrición del promotion of green businesses and the payment Escolar y del Adolescente - PANEA) provides of environmental services for environmental- supplementary meals for the student population. ly-friendly products. Tax incentives, the respon- The program promotes healthy eating habits, sible use of green seals and encouraging the use hygiene and appropriate behaviors regarding a of biomass sources to generate clean energy, as person’s daily diet. The National Orchard Program well as promoting research on production sys- (Programa Nacional de Huertas) operates under tems that help reduce the carbon footprint, are the Directorate of Equity Programs (Dirección also part of this policy. Last, a strategy has been de Programas de Equidad) within the MEP's developed for producers to increase the use of the Department of Food and Health. It is based on the C-neutral standard and encourage consumers to principle of providing the country’s educational purchase products with this label (SEPSA, 2015). centers with the necessary resources to launch COSTA RICA CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES 261 agricultural projects that supply school cafeterias corresponded to “medical devices”, 9% to bananas, with fresh, healthy foods, and develop healthy 8% to pineapple, 3% to gold coffee, 3% to syrups eating habits in students and encourage them and concentrates for the preparation of soft drinks to eat balanced diets. In order to promote and 2% to fruit juices and concentrates. This students’ health by maintaining healthy eating accounts for 25% of the total exported goods. habits, MEP defined the type of foods that could be sold at school cafeterias (Executive i. Market challenges Decree 36910 of 11/22/2011). It stipulates that Market challenges can be divided into those a daily supply of fresh fruits and vegetables involving the domestic or national market and must be provided, sets maximal sugar limits those for the export markets. Access to national on the preparation of beverages and prohibits markets is relatively simple. On the other hand, the sale of certain prepackaged products that the international market involves higher costs fail to contribute to a healthy diet. Costa Rica regarding transportation and packaging, as well joined the efforts of the Pan American Health as the mandatory or voluntary certifications some Organization (PAHO) to formulate the 2011- destinations now require. Voluntary certifications 2021 National Plan for Reducing Sodium are varied and may include ISO standards, organic and Salt Consumption in the Population production and good agricultural practices. (Plan Nacional de Reducción del Consumo Quality factors are another major challenge that de Sodio y Sal en la Población 2011-2021). must be met in accessing markets and ensuring the food supply. Both national and international g. Comparative advantages markets are developing increasingly stringent of Costa Rica in agriculture standards that must be complied with. This Costa Rica has high national Information and is particularly important concerning nutrition, Communication Technologies (ICT); 94% of rural safety and even more tangible aspects such as households have access to a mobile phone and packaging and preservation, not to mention the 46% to the Internet (INEC, 2015b). This allows increasing concern with environmental protection. useful tools to be developed for farmers using ICT. Costa Rica’s agricultural areas also have technical high schools, university campuses, centers dedicated to agricultural research and VIII. Abstract agricultural outreach agencies with trained professionals, which facilitates the assimilation a. Some potential national agricultural and implementation of new technologies to scenarios for agricultural production in the improve production processes (Programa Estado next fifty years de la Nación en Desarrollo Humano Sostenible, If by 2030, there is a 1.3°C increase in the average 2014). The existence of a wide network of annual temperature coupled with changes in national parks contributes to the protection of rainfall distribution patterns, as some models watersheds and the conservation of biodiversity suggest, this will lead to the redistribution of and water resources (Programa Estado de la areas suitable for particular crops. As mentioned Nación en Desarrollo Humano Sostenible, 2015). earlier, areas with most sensitive crops would be reduced, whereas others might benefit h. International Trade (Bouroncle et al., 2015). A potential scenario The agri-food sector remains an extremely for the next fifty years would be one in which dynamic sector that contributes a great deal to technological innovations and the value chain, the national economy. Of total exports, which as well as ICT, would determine agricultural amounted to $9.65 billion USD in 2015, US $2.45 production. The opening of markets (through free billion were produced by the agricultural sector trade agreements) will probably continue to be and US$ 335 million by the livestock/fisheries a determining policy, meaning that production sector. Of all the goods exported in 2015, 22% schemes must be clearly defined. Food security COSTA RICA 262 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN THE AMERICAS: THE VIEW OF THE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES will continue to be a concern, since the needs while new irrigation technologies should be of an increasingly large population will have implemented in traditional and new crops. The to be met. On the other hand, agrobiodiversity aim is to obtain a diversity of plants adapted to requires a new paradigm for it to be exploited. the new agricultural conditions and products Climate change is impacting all productive with higher nutritional quality, to strengthen the sectors and will continue to play a major role. country’s food security and increase production without expanding the agricultural frontier. If the b. High-priority actions to achieve current production system (agroexport model) is agricultural sustainability maintained, agreements with countries interested Priority actions that will need to be considered in permanently supplying the demand for basic to achieve agricultural sustainability are products should be signed, water collection and likely to be related to climate change. The distribution projects should be substantially impact of climate change at the national level improved, agricultural production systems should should be monitored efficiently in order to be diversified to include other components that feed mathematical models that will ensure will enable producers to improve their incomes more accurate forecasts and therefore make and remain in the countryside, internal transport it possible to design long-term mitigation (roads and railways) and transport to external strategies for each of the country’s agricultural markets (harbors and airports) should be upgraded regions (Bouroncle et al., 2015). The mitigation to improve economies-of-scale, and strategic and adaptation strategies implemented will alliances should be promoted. It is also important directly affect the agricultural sustainability to develop new productive opportunities in rural not only of the country, but also at the global areas in order to reduce migration to cities. In this level. Moreover, local breeding programs respect, ecotourism and agroecotourism would should be strengthened and expanded, either have activities that could have a more significant conventionally or through genetic engineering, impact on rural families’ economy in the future. References CCAFS (2014). Estado del arte en cambio Ministerio de Salud (2011). Política Nacional climático, agricultura y seguridad de Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional alimentaria en Costa Rica. CGIAR, MAG, 2011-2021. 1ª ed. San José, Costa Rica. CAC, CIAT. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/ 54 pp. https://www.ministeriodesalud. bitstreams/34613/retrieve on 15/01/17. go.cr/index.php/biblioteca-de-archivos/ FAO (2015a). 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