Journal of Maps
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Geomorphology of the Caribbean coast of Costa
Rica
Adolfo Quesada-Román & Paula M. Pérez-Briceño
To cite this article: Adolfo Quesada-Román & Paula M. Pérez-Briceño (2019)
Geomorphology of the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, Journal of Maps, 15:2, 363-371, DOI:
10.1080/17445647.2019.1600592
To link to this article:  https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2019.1600592
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JOURNAL OF MAPS
2019, VOL. 15, NO. 2, 363–371
https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2019.1600592
Science
Geomorphology of the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica
Adolfo Quesada-Román a,b and Paula M. Pérez-Briceño b,c
aClimate Change Impacts and Risks in the Anthropocene, Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland;
bSchool of Geography, University of Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica; cCenter for Geophysical Research, University of Costa Rica, San Pedro,
Costa Rica
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY
Costa Rica’s Caribbean coastline is the result of a complex tectonic setting coupled with Received 7 February 2019
dynamic geological, climatological, hydrological and ecological processes. Despite their Revised 20 March 2019
importance in risk prevention and in land use planning, geomorphological maps at detailed Accepted 25 March 2019
scales are scarce in Costa Rica. A geomorphology map of 210 km of the Caribbean coastline
was produced at a scale of 1: 25,000 with a 1: 50,000 scale output map. Eleven landforms KEYWORDSGeomorphological mapping;
were mapped and described based upon their morphogenesis (i.e. tectonic, volcanic, fluvial coastal geomorphology;
and/or coastal). This work is an important base for coastal management, and is a compilation fluvial geomorphology;
of the best existing knowledge of the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica. coastal management;
Caribbean Sea; Central
America
1. Introduction
ones with hydric rates of 60–100%. In the extreme
The Costa Rican Caribbean coast is located on the east- north, the first climatic group is classified as G2a, fol-
ern coast of the nation stretching from the geographic lowed by G7a, while in the south are the wet climatic
coordinates 9° 32′ 34.8′′ to 10° 56′ 24′′ N and −82° 33′ groups of F6 and E6. Figure 1 shows the spatial distri-
14.4′′ to −83° 41′ 52.8′′ W. This territory forms an bution of the climatic groups and its characteristics:
elongated depression that is approximately 50 km wide temperature ranges, and the annual precipitation par-
extending from marine carbonate platforms of the ameters (Pérez-Briceño, Amador, & Alfaro, 2017).
South East to the broad alluvial plains to the North. Due to the location of the Costa Rican Caribbean
This, forms the morphotectonic unit of the volcanic region, the climatic regime is formed in part by the
backarc, which is a result of the subduction process recurrent impact of cold breaks (Alfaro & Pérez-Bri-
between the Cocos and Caribbean plates, the Central ceño, 2014; Campos-Durán & Quesada-Román,
Deformed Belt of Costa Rica, the Depression Belt of 2017a) and tropical cyclones (Alfaro & Quesada-
Northern Panama and the subsequent erosion-accumu- Román, 2010; Alfaro, Quesada-Román, & Solano,
lation of sediments of the Cordillera de Talamanca and 2010; Campos-Durán & Quesada-Román, 2017b;
the Central Volcanic Cordillera (Marshall, 2007; Mar- Pérez-Briceño, Alfaro, Hidalgo, & Jiménez, 2016).
shall, Fisher, & Gardner, 2000). The study area encom- These same phenomena cause strong waves on the
passes two geological regions: the Caribbean Basin and Caribbean coasts, where average wave heights of 1.37
the Limón Basin. These regions are a result of the devel- m are reported with a maximum wave height of 3.87
opment of shallow deposits and turbidity environments m (Lizano, 2007). In terms of tidal behavior, the Carib-
generated around 65 Ma and a series of volcanic and bean coast has a mixed and sometimes semi-diurnal
sedimentary lithologies (Figure 1). According to Denyer tide, with an intertidal range of 21 cm (Lizano, 2006).
and Alvarado (2007), the different geological formations Themost common soil orders found here are Entisols
of the Costa Rican Caribbean vary on their compositions in places of limited pedological development owing to
and ages from Miocene shales and sandstones (Uscari), the relative youth of the parent materials, Inceptisols
Mio-Pliocene sandstones (Río Banano, Quebrada Cho- where the soils have a more advanced B-horizon devel-
colate, and Moín), Plio-Pleistocene conglomerates and opment, Histosols generally where there are periodic
sandstones (Suretka). floods throughout the year, and Ultisols occurring in
Four climatic groups can be found on the Costa the most weathered profiles (Camacho, 2017). The tro-
Rican Caribbean coast. Two of them very humid with pical wet and moist forests dominate the Caribbean
hydric rates of 100-300% and the other two are wet coast, together with extensive pastures for livestock
CONTACT Adolfo Quesada-Román adolfo.quesada@unige.ch Climate Change Impacts and Risks in the Anthropocene, Institute for Environmental
Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland School of Geography, University of Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica
© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group on behalf of Journal of Maps
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
364 A. QUESADA-ROMÁN AND P. M. PÉREZ-BRICEÑO
Figure 1. Geology and coastal climatic groups of the Caribbean of Costa Rica. Pa: Mean annual rainfall; Ta: Mean annual tempera-
ture; ETPa: Annual potential evapotranspiration; Ia: Drought index; Ih: Hydric index
and banana fields that form the agricultural landscape mapping, fieldwork, and post-mapping (Otto &
(McClearn et al., 2016). Smith, 2013). Initially, 5 km strip was defined from
the coastline to help to define the transitional fluvial
and coastal processes. To determine the landforms of
2. Materials and methods
the coastal strip, we utilized aerial photography from
The Main Map of the Caribbean coast geomorphology the CARTA 2005 project at a scale of 1: 25,000 (last
of Costa Rica was developed in three phases: pre- national cadastral survey), as well as Copernicus
JOURNAL OF MAPS 365
Sentinel and Landsat 8 satellite images from March processes that explain its present height and smooth
2018 to determine the recent landform variations. As relief. The sedimentary hills act like a pre-mountain
a historical base and a toponymic, the following topo- between the coastal plains and the Cordillera de Tala-
graphic sheets of the National Geographic Institute manca and are dissected by the rivers Limoncito,
were consulted at a scale of 1: 50,000: Punta Castilla, Banano, Vizcaya, Bananito, San Andrés, Estrella,
Colorado, Tortuguero, California, Parismina, Matina, Coal, Cocles, as well as other minor streams.
Moín, Agua Fría, San Andrés, Río Banano, Cahuita, The carbonate platforms are segments of marine
Sixaola, and Amubri. An initial legend was prepared origin, formed by relatively stable, low inclination
based on a morphogenetic classification (Gustavsson, Plio-Pleistocene reef limestone rocks that have been
Kolstrup, & Seijmonsbergen, 2006), which separates gradually raised by slow uplift punctuated by sudden
landforms according to their origin into endogenic vertical movements due to regional tectonic activity.
(i.e. formed beneath the Earth’s surface) and exogenic The progressive uplift of old coral reefs due to continu-
(i.e. occurring at the surface). A description of each ous or sudden earthquakes, such as the San Estanislao
landform starts from the morphogenetic classification in 1822 or the Limón earthquake in 1991, have formed
carried out in the first preliminary legend. This coastal plains adjacent to the coast in the principal
description is based on the characteristics of its mor- cities and towns of Limón, Cahuita, Puerto Viejo and
phology (shape), genetics (process), composition and Manzanillo (Cortés, Soto, & Jiménez, 1994; Quesada-
structure, chronology, as well as its associations with Román, 2016). These zones coincide with the outcrops
the environmental system including land use, soils, of the Portete Formation, which is composed of very
and ecology (Bishop, James, Shroder, & Walsh, 2012). altered Pleistocene coral reefs (Bergoeing, 2017).
In the fieldwork phase, visits were made to the Car- Despite their endogenic origin, at present the marine
ibbean coastline between 2015 and 2018 to verify the abrasion is the prevalent modeling process of these
limits and dynamics of the proposed landforms. landforms. The postseismic relaxation of this region
Once the final geomorphological map was finished it favor a rapid karstification and could generate pro-
was accompanied by a legend that correlates the colors blems by subsidence with the formation of dolines or
according to their genesis (Hernández-Santana, Mén- sinkholes (Figure 2).
dez-Linares, López-Portillo, & Preciado-López, 2016;
Quesada-Román, 2018; Quesada-Román & Zamor- 3.1.2. Volcanic landforms
ano-Orozco, 2018). As the coastline of the Costa The volcanic cones are concentrated in Cerro Tortu-
Rican Caribbean is about 210 km, it was decided that guero, an ancient and extinct volcanic edifice of 119
the optimal output scale given the extension of the m height composed of pyroclasts and potassium basalts
basin would be 1:50,000. of the Quaternary period less than 1 Ma (Gazel et al.,
2011). It exhibits distinct volcanic origins and morpho-
logical characteristics and it is being dismantled by
3. Results fluvial erosion, the construction of artificial channels
and the extraction of pyroclastic materials from its
3.1. Endogenic landforms
flanks. Three cones have been recognized in this unit,
3.1.1. Tectonic landforms Cerro Tortuguero of 119 m height, and two minor
The sedimentary hills are small elevations, with smooth cones: San Francisco of 20 m height and Tortuguerito
and elongated slopes and relative heights that do not of 40 m height. These last two very abraded by the mar-
exceed 300 m. They are located between Moín and Six- ine action, while Cerro Tortuguero has been cut for the
aola and are composed of sandstones, shales and con- construction of the canal. It should be noted that the
glomerates with carbonaceous intercalations of Caribbean coast exhibits other examples of this intra-
turbidites. The turbidites are coastal and fluvial origin graben volcanism, such as the Lomas del Colorado,
dating from the Miocene epoch to Quaternary period. the Lomas Azules, the hills of Aguas Zarcas and the
The evolution of this region is controlled by regional Mercedes hills (Alvarado, 2011). The mapping of this
tectonics and seismicity generated by the Central morphological units is consistent with other works
Deformed Belt of Costa Rica and the Depression Belt including Denyer and Alvarado (2007), Bergoeing
of Northern Panama. These processes favor the devel- (2017), and Bergoeing and Brenes (2017).
opment of sedimentary hills aligned to a series of
inverse faults with preferential South West trending,
3.2. Exogenic landforms
strike-slip faults with North East-South West orien-
tation, syncline folds with North–South orientation 3.2.1. Fluvial landforms
and are characterized by tectonic uplift (Denyer & The fluvial morphologies include rivers, abandoned
Alvarado, 2007; Marshall et al., 2000). Incessant uplifts meanders, alluvial plains and fluvial islands. Along
due to positive neotectonics coupled with an intense these lowlands a complex system of channels exhibit
erosive dynamics were the prevalent geomorphic the transitions of large rivers from the Central Volcanic
366 A. QUESADA-ROMÁN AND P. M. PÉREZ-BRICEÑO
Figure 2. Marine abrasive platforms in Puerto Viejo.
Cordillera to wide plains. They exhibit extensive sys- mouth of the San Juan River and Tortuguero, between
tems of natural and artificial channels ending in estu- Tortuguero and Limón, from Limón to Cahuita,
aries in the northern part of the Caribbean. These between Cahuita and Manzanillo, and finally near the
systems include the Colorado, La Suerte, Parismina, mouth of the Sixaola River. Between the mouth of
Pacuare, Madre de Dios and Matina rivers. The Carib- the Colorado and Tortuguero rivers these plains are
bean northern coastal plains were submerged up to the drained by a dense system of natural and artificial
level of 10 m by the Flandrian transgression until 6 ka fluvial channels in a matrix of wooded swamps or yolil-
and since then emerged due by positive neotectonics lales. From Tortuguero to Limón, these plains have
(Bergoeing, 2017). In the Southern Caribbean, the riv- similar dynamics associated with canals along swamps
ers tend to form rapid transitions between the Cordil- that in some cases have been drained for the cultivation
lera de Talamanca, the sedimentary hills, and the of bananas. In addition, they are bounded by a series of
alluvial plains. These alluvial plains, occupied by natural or artificial coastal bars that connect with
Limoncito, Banano, Vizcaya, Bananito, San Andrés, different mouths such as those of the rivers Parismina,
Coal and Cocles rivers are no larger than 4 km wide Madre de Dios and Matina. In the case of the section
and empty into the Caribbean Sea. In the case of the between Limón and Cahuita, these alluvial plains are
channels that cross through the Valle de la Estrella, narrow, with a maximum width of 4 km, in their tran-
the Valle de Talamanca and the Sixaola river, these riv- sition between the sedimentary hills and the Caribbean
ers formmeanders due to the width of their floodplains Sea. They are dominated by agricultural land uses prin-
and the shallow gradient of the channel before reaching cipally banana production and pastures. Between
their mouths. Abandoned meanders form as isolated Cahuita and Manzanillo the alluvial plain is narrow
parts of a river in the shape of an arc that form by cut- with no more than 2 km between the sedimentary
ting the end of a meander and forming a marshy hol- hills and/or the carbonate platforms of the Caribbean
low known as an ox-bow lake. They occur where the Sea. A last segment of the alluvial plains is located in
floodplains are wide and dynamic, such as the Color- the proximity of the mouth of the Sixaola River,
ado and Parismina rivers. where a marked meandric drainage dominates the
The alluvial plains range from a shallow gradient to landscape (Figure 3).
nearly flat and form large extensions in the Northern In the northernmost sector of the Caribbean coast of
Caribbean. These alluvial plains serve as the coastal Costa Rica two segments of the fluvial islands of Portil-
plains in the South Caribbean. These landforms have los and Calero are found. These are composed of por-
their origin in the deposition of sediments produced tions of the mainland surrounded by rivers or the sea.
by the erosion of the Central Volcanic Cordillera and In the case of Portillos Island, it is ringed to the north
Cordillera de Talamanca. Based upon their locations and east by the Caribbean Sea, to the west by the San
these can be divided into five sections: from the Juan River and to the south with by Taura River. In
JOURNAL OF MAPS 367
Figure 3. Sixaola River in the Costa Rica-Panama boundary.
the case of Calero Island, it is bounded on the north the coastal drift of the littoral currents. In this region
with the Taura River, on the east with the Caribbean the coral reefs, coastal lagoons, coastal bars, at least
Sea, on the west with the San Juan River and on the one blind estuary, and beaches dominate the area.
south with the Colorado River. In addition, other The coral reefs are found in shallow waters and gener-
small fluvial islands are located on the Colorado ate platforms between the coast and the barrier reef.
River and Tortuguero lagoon. The constant sediment This is common in Cahuita, Uvita island in front of
deposition that has occurred since the Miocene Limón, and amid Puerto Viejo and Manzanillo and
coupled with the consequent formation of large chan- to a lesser extent in the coasts among Limón and
nels and wetlands in the Tortuguero National Park Moín. These coral reefs are classified as fringing and
and the Wildlife Refuge Barra del Colorado in the patch reefs as well as carbonate banks and algal ridges
North Caribbean have paramount ecosystemic and (Cortés & Jiménez, 2003).
hydrological functions. These features act as large The coastal lagoons of the Caribbean coast exhibit
reservoirs of carbon, niches of wide biodiversity, temp- characteristics of estuaries or coastal bars that have
erature regulators and they protect the coasts from the been enclosed by sedimentation. These lagoons are
impact of tropical storms (Sasmito, Murdiyarso, Friess, subject to the ebb and flow of tides and as a result
& Kurnianto, 2016). In the case of the southern Carib- they contain brackish water. These units maintain an
bean,with a few notable exceptions, the rivers travel less important ecosystem function as valuable wetlands.
than 4 km in the alluvial plain. Among these excep- In the sector of Calero Island, these landforms appear
tions are the Valle de la Estrella, Valle de Talamanca as elongated lagoons of up to 10 km long and 250 m
and the Sixaola rivers who developed meander patterns wide. Examples include the Pereira, Atrás, Enmedio,
in their journey between the Cordillera de Talamanca and Agua Dulce lagoons. Other smaller coastal lagoons
and Caribbean Sea. stand out to the south of the Colorado river, including
Laguna Samay, Nine, Eight, Six and Four. In the vicin-
3.2.2. Coastal landforms ity of Tortuguero, the Penitencia lagoon and Tortu-
Coastal landforms are created by the action of the guero lagoon are found, which are approximately
waves and the oceanic processes as exemplified by 25 km long and can be up to 350 m wide.
368 A. QUESADA-ROMÁN AND P. M. PÉREZ-BRICEÑO
Figure 4. Coastal lagoon, coastal bar and fluvial plains from Cerro Tortuguero (volcanic cone).
Coastal bars are accumulative banks near the coast 1.5 km on average and also include wetlands according
with a slight elevation above sea level. These bars to the last national wetlands inventory (SINAC-
extend parallel to the coast and are separated from PNUD-GEF, 2018). The islands of Portillo and Calero,
the mainland by coastal lagoons. They originated despite their fluvial origin, are intensely influenced by
from the saturation of sediments in the coastal zone coastal dynamics due to the action of the marine cur-
due to the action of the waves and the deposition by rents, the coastal drift, and occasional erosion during
the coastal currents in surfaces of the very shallow storms. The different coastal landforms are affected
slope. The fluctuation of tides, the action of low energy by the tectonic uplift especially in the South Caribbean
waves and the abundant presence of sand contribute to (Alvarado et al., 2017), and by the rise in sea level as a
this process. These bars are located between Tortu- result of climate variability in the Caribbean Sea during
guero and Moín, with natural coastal lagoons amid the Holocene (Khan et al., 2017), and global warming
Tortuguero and the estuary of the Parismina River. (Cronin, 2012; Losada et al., 2013). Coral reefs in the
In certain segments among the mouth of the Parismina Caribbean have been devastated by a number of pro-
river and the Moín artificial channels were built to con- cesses including the drastic reduction in the population
nect the estuaries of the Pacuare, Madre de Dios, of spatially dominant species and construction of pri-
Matina, Vueltas and Moín rivers. These channels mary structures during the Pleistocene and Holocene,
reach 30 km long and 1.5 km wide, from Tortuguero and their loss represents a great ecological impact (Car-
to Moín and are 82 km long. The blind estuary of the penter et al., 2008) (Figure 4).
Taura River connects the San Juan River with the Besides the described landforms, important but
Taura coastal lagoon and divides the island of Portillos smaller and not mapped features are the beaches.
from Calero Island. They are closed by an ephemeral They can be long (kilometers) and normally narrow
baymouth and are stagnant during the dry season. (less than 50 m), even with two berms. These mor-
The coastal landforms of the northern Caribbean phologies can be characterized by their origin with
tend to be units of larger sizes such as the coastal white sand owing to the coastal erosion of coral reefs,
bars along the shoreline between Tortuguero and such as Cahuita and Manzanillo; or beaches with
Moín. These stretch 82 km in length with widths of dark sand due to the fluvial erosion from the Cordillera
JOURNAL OF MAPS 369
Figure 5. Eroded beaches in Cahuita National Park, Southern Caribbean coast.
de Talamanca (Puerto Viejo and Playa Negra), and the natural hazards as well as land use planning
Cordillera Volcánica Central (Parismina, Barra del cartography.
Colorado and Matina Beach). Some of these beaches
have experienced intense erosion during the last years
possibly due to the post-seismic relaxation or sea Software
level rise (Quesada-Román, 2016). In addition, Moín The software used was ESRI ArcGIS 10.3 to georefer-
beach is been affected by intense erosion due to the ence, digitize, and visualize the aerial photographs
construction of a new container terminal (Vargas & and generate the geomorphological map.
Barrantes, 2018) (Figure 5).
Acknowledgements
4. Conclusions
The final version of the manuscript and the map benefits from
Here we present the geomorphological map of the the observations of D. Chavarría, M. Alas, R. L. Losco,
210 km Caribbean coastline of Costa Rica. This J. A. Rodríguez, J. L. Gutiérrez. We greatly thank to reviewers
study resulted in the production of the rst geomor- H. Apps, P. E. Orrù, J. R. Hernández and W. Stephenson forfi
their useful corrections and suggestions that highly improved
phological product made at a scale of 1: 25,000 on the manuscript and the Main Map.
the Caribbean coast with the output of a 1:50,000
scale map. The legend was classified according to its
genesis on two tectonic landforms (sedimentary hills Disclosure statement
and carbonate platforms), one volcanic landform No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
(volcanic cones), four fluvial landforms (rivers, aban-
doned meanders, alluvial plains and fluvial islands),
and four coastal landforms (coral reef, coastal lagoon, Funding
coastal bars and a blind estuary). These types of geo- The authors were partially supported by 805-B7-286 (Vicepre-
morphological maps can also be used for studies of sidency of Research UCREA) and B8-766 (Vicepresidency of
landform evolution, detailed morphogenetic maps, Research-Redes) projects of the University of Costa Rica.
370 A. QUESADA-ROMÁN AND P. M. PÉREZ-BRICEÑO
ORCID subduction interaction in southern Central America:
Mantle upwelling and slab melting. Lithos, 121, 117–
Adolfo Quesada-Román http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6601- 134. doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2010.10.008
5254 Gustavsson,M., Kolstrup, E., & Seijmonsbergen, A. C. (2006). A
Paula M. Pérez-Briceño http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7217- new symbol-and-GIS based detailed geomorphological map-
8495 ping system:Renewal of a scientific discipline for understand-
ing landscape development. Geomorphology, 77, 90–111.
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