DOI: https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.upsy17-3.fcce
Fear of Crime and Cultivation Effect. Social
and Psychological Predictors*
Miedo al crimen y efecto de cultivo. Predictores sociales y
psicológicos
Received: 28 August 2015 | Accepted: 07 August 2017
Juan Diego García-Castroa
Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica
ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9662-6547
Rolando Pérez-Sánchez
Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica
ABSTRACT
Within the framework of the study of cultivation, the present research 
attempts to study the association between general TV consumption, 
particular TV news, and fear of crime. The analysis considers narrative 
transportation and system justification as psychological predictor 
variables; in addition, sex, level of crime in the area of residence, and social 
class as social covariates. Participants were 516 young (M = 20.5 years, 
SD = 4.7) Costa Ricans. A hierarchical regression analysis (stepwise) was 
conducted. Results indicated that people who experienced more narrative 
transportation, less system justification, women, and low social class, have 
higher levels of fear of crime. Results are discussed from the need to 
expand the cultivation hypothesis of fear of crime.
Keywords
fear of crime; cultivation; narrative transportation; system justification; social class.
RESUMEN
En el marco de la teoría del cultivo, la presente investigación estudia 
la asociación entre el consumo general de televisión, noticias televisivas 
y el miedo al crimen. El análisis considera el transporte narrativo y la 
a Correspondence author. Email: justificación del sistema como variables predictoras psicológicas; además,   
juandiego.garcia@ucr.ac.cr el sexo, el nivel de delincuencia en el área de residencia y la clase 
social como covariables sociales. Los participantes fueron 516 jóvenes 
costarricenses (M = 20.5 años, DE = 4.7). Se realizó un análisis de 
How to cite : García-Castro, J. D. & Pérez-Sánchez, R. regresión jerárquica (stepwise). Los resultados indican que las personas 
(2018). Fear of Crime and Cultivation Effect. Social que experimentaron más transporte narrativo, menos justificación del 
and Psychological Predictors. Universitas Psychologica, 
1-14 sistema, las mujeres y la clase social baja tienen mayores niveles de miedo 17(3), . doi: https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana. 
upsy17-3.fcce al crimen. Se discuten los resultados a partir de la necesidad de ampliar la 
hipótesis de cultivo del miedo al crimen.
Palabras clave
miedo al crimen;  cultivo;  transporte narrativo;  justificación del sistema;  clase 
social.
The distance between fear of crime and objective
victimization is an international tendency. Within an
oversized perception of crime, people tend to increase and
| Universitas Psychologica | Colombia | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 | ISSN 1657-9267 |
Juan Diego García-Castro, Rolando Pérez-Sánchez.
distort their real probabilities of becoming victims consumption,especially watching TV . The main
of it (Wyant, 2008). approach that has focused on studying this
Crime in Costa Rica is one of the main phenomenon is the so-called cultivation theory.
concerns of its inhabitants and the most Cultivation theory
discussed and presented in the media. Nine out This approach indicates that regular exposure
of ten people think the country is threatened to television influences the perception people
by crime and nearly half think their immediate have about the world in which they live. It has
environment is unsafe. However, the perception been found that people who watch more TV
of crime is greater than what actually happens. are more likely to assume the version of reality
The gap between the perceived likelihood of television shows. The way humans conceive
being victim of a violent crime over the actual themselves, their biography, their immediate
probability is 2.1 times higher in the case of society, or the world, is also influenced by how
property crime, 16.7 for physical violence and time is spent, the roles assumed as well as the
11 times for emotional violence (García-Castro, images and stories offered in the media. Frequent
2012). exposition to crime news affects how people
In Costa Rica, television is the most consumed feel and perceive fear of crime (Kohm, Waid-
means of communication. Over 90% of the Lindberg, Weinrath, O'Connor, & Dobbs, 2012;
population has a TV set at home (Instituto Shanahan & Morgan, 2003).
Nacional de Estadística y Censos [INEC], 2011). Television is a system of messages that provides
Its programming of shows is mainly composed patterns of images and repetitive stable ideologies
of foreign productions, fundamentally from the that are practically unavoidable. Exposure to
United States or Latin American countries. those images and ideologies affects the audience
Sitcoms and newscasts are found within the that consumes them. The notion of ‘‘cultivation’’
domestic production, being the latter the most comes from the metaphor that the greatest
watched. In newscasts, crime news take most of impact of television materializes through the
the airtime (Fonseca & Sandoval, 2005). repetition of images. Much of what people know,
Recently, in international research, fear of or think they know, has not been personally
crime has received considerable attention from experienced; they know it through stories they
social scientists who perceive the phenomenon have heard. Television becomes one of the major
as a bigger problem than crime itself due to its storytellers of our time (Shanahan & Morgan,
implications on the levels of anxiety, depression, 2003).
interpersonal distrust, welfare, and mental health The impact television has in its audience is
in the general population (Scarborough, Like- not mechanical. The cognitive process, through
Haislip, Novak, Lucas, & Alarid, 2010). which cultivation works, happens to be complex.
Although an ongoing discussion exists on the Recently, the heuristic processing model has
conceptualization and operationalization of fear attracted much attention from researchers to
of crime, the literature recognizes its definition as explain this complexity (Riddle, 2010). Heuristic
having a negative emotional reaction generated availability or cognitive accessibility is a shortcut
by crime or symbols associated with it (Ferraro people use, when employing information that
& LaGrange, 1987; Karakus, McGarrell, & is easily accessible in memory, to judge the
Basibuyuk, 2010). Emotional responses are frequency of events. Due to frequency and recent
connected to the situations and circumstances exposure to vivid images, people who watch
that cause fear as well as the cognitive process great amounts of television will have television
of crime perception, which can also cause fear constructs easily accessible in memory. They
(Rountree & Land, 1996; Scarborough et al., will use them when estimating the frequency
2010). of events they have previously watched in the
The particular association between crime and messages they have consumed (Shrum, 1996).
perceived victimization has been linked to media
2 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 |
Fear of Crime and Cultivation Effect. Social and Psychological Predictors*
Within the literature on cultivation theory, Buselle (2008), have focused on the study of the
empirical research has found a relationship role of specific genres in shaping worldviews of
between television news consumption and being audiences, including those linked to fear of crime.
less likely to withstand the fact of having a Cultivation theory has experienced a
neighbor with mental disabilities (Diefenbach & major shift towards psychological processes
West, 2007), having more willingness to accept in the last decades (Bilandzic & Busselle,
the use of DNA evidence to solve crimes (Brewer 2008). Transportation theory proposes stronger
& Law, 2010), having lower levels of trust cultivation effects when the viewer gets
associated with higher risk perception (Salmi, psychologically involved into the experience of
Smolej, & Kivivuori, 2007), having more ethnic the TV show he or she is watching (Green &
stereotypes (Lee, Bichard, Irey, Walt, & Carlson, Clark, 2012).
2009), perceiving the world as a threatening Narrative transportation theory
place (Appel, 2008), and having more fatalistic Narrative transportation stands for the
beliefs about cancer prevention (Niederdeppe, individual immersion in a content. The process
Franklin, Goldstein, & Pribble, 2010). involves three basic psychological components:
Nevertheless, studies on the relationship attention, emotional implication, and cognitive
between TV news consumption and the ability. When facing the news of a criminal
cultivation of fear of crime are not conclusive. incident, individuals, at a first glance, respond
The relationship between watching crime news intentional and consciously attentive. Once the
and fear of crime is supported by several studies, individuals are aware, they have the opportunity
but the relationship between watching general to dive into the narration. The emotional
TV news or general TV and fear of crime is implication entails the involvement of feelings
less well-established (Doyle, 2006; Kohm et al., into those developed in the news´ story. As
2012). For instance, it has been found that individuals are transported into the narrative,
regardless of crime rates, watching crime news they make emotional connections with that
relates to an increase on fear and concern within the narrative. Finally, through images,
about crime (Romer, Jamieson, & Aday, 2003). people use their imagination to create the scene,
Conversely, results also show that television news the protagonist, and other characters involved
affects what people consider to be important; (Bilandzic & Busselle, 2008; Green & Brock,
however, it does not cultivate fear (Gross & Aday, 2000).
2003). Recently, it has been found that people Narrative transportation persuades the TV
who watch media that portray vivid violence viewer by reducing negative cognitive responses,
demonstrate higher violence perception (Riddle, the realism of the experience, and strong
2010). The contradiction in the results clarifies emotional responses. This leads to a lower
the need of a thorough study in the area. critical analysis of the arguments and less
The main results of cultivation theory have negative thoughts when emotions are positive.
been based on the assumption that the effect If emotional responses are negative, as it could
of cultivation is the result of exposure to be in crime news, persuasion through solving
television content in general, rather than the events becomes possible (Edson, 2004; van Laer,
effect of consumption of specific TV genres de Ruyter, Visconti, & Wetzels, 2014).
(Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). However, the In the Costa Rican context, it is persuaded
cultivation effect theory should be linked to by means of televised police repression (Fonseca
different areas of social cognition. Therefore, & Sandoval, 2005). Some investigations point
keeping this assumption does not reveal/expose out the association between fear of crime and
the particularities of cultivation in specific areas conservative attitudes (Holbert, Shah, & Kwak,
of perception, evaluation or assessment of the 2004; Snyder et al., 2011). It is considered that
social world. In this sense authors like Eschholz, the association between narrative transportation,
Chiricos, and Gertz (2003) or Bilandzic and fear of crime, and cultivation will in turn be
| Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 | 3
Juan Diego García-Castro, Rolando Pérez-Sánchez.
linked to the degree of legitimacy of the status cultivation framework could contribute to
quo. The system justification theory precisely understand the association between watching
aims to study people’s tendency to legitimize the television and fear of crime.
status quo (Jost & Thompson, 2000). The association between cultivation, narrative
System Justification Theory transportation and system justification this study
The System Justification Theory has been is interested in investigating, is not the product of
developed during the last two decades by the specificity of Costa Rican television offer. It
American social psychology, it has led to is an interaction that can occur similarly in other
numerous investigations and is well extended socio-cultural context(s).
within the academic community. It proposes that The key feature of narrative transportation
people conceive the social system as necessary, is the sense of emotional immersion. This
natural, fair, and inevitable (Jost, Federico, & condition facilitates persuasion regarding the
Napier, 2009; Napier, Thorisdottir, & Jost, 2010). reality provided by crime news (Bilandzic &
People defend the status quo because they Buselle, 2008, 2011) . As research on the
need to minimize uncertainty, maintain a shared effect of emotions on cognitions has shown
reality with others, and satisfy existential and (Fiske & Taylor, 2013), as well as research on
relational needs. It is a palliative role which persuasion, particularly from the perspective of
generates more self-esteem and psychological the Elaboration Likehood Model (Petty, Priester,
well-being (Jost et al., 2009; Napier et al., 2010). & Briñol, 2002), the type of emotion or mood
Human beings try to avoid fear because it is presented at a given time defines the type of
an enormous psychic burden, which causes stress evaluation, judgment or acceptance of reality.
and it can even be traumatic and an immobilizer In the case of narrative transportation, the
(Pennebaker & Stone, 2004). Traditionally, the emotional immersion evoked by crime news
first source people use to deflect that feeling could be associated with negative emotions
is personal control (Presson & Benassi, 1996; linked to fear or anxiety about the crime, which
Kay, Gaucher, Napier, Callan, & Laurin, 2008). would facilitate the effect of cultivation.
The system justification theory states that people In fact, the effect of cultivation is based on
defend the status quo to minimize uncertainty continuous and extended exposure over time
and feel more control over their lives. to certain media representations of reality, the
Fear of crime and cultivation: the role of presence of narrative transportation of emotional
narrative transportation and system justification response to such news could have a persuasive
Within the cultivation theory and the effect consonant with the content of the news
prediction of fear of crime, this research attempts by the uncritical adoption of a representation
to analyze the relationship between the amount of the social world, where violence or crime
of TV and in particular TV news consumption. It predominates (Bilandzic & Buselle, 2008).
is considered necessary to extend the cultivation As Green and Brock (2000) state, an
hypothesis with new variables that may help immersive experience reduces the possibility of
explaining the cultivation of fear in the general a counter--argument, contributing to cognitive
population and that have not been, so far, activation of a heuristic process of availability and
empirically associated with fear of crime such as accessibility (Shrum, 1996), taking as reference
narrative transportation (Green & Brock, 2000; the content offered by TV news. It must
Green & Clark, 2012) and beliefs about system be considered that the effect of cultivation,
justification (Jost & Thompson, 2000). promoted by narrative transportation, is a
Television news shows in general, and cognitive automatic mechanism, which is neither
crime news in particular, could make some controlled nor conscious.
viewers experience narrative transportation and People have a natural need to control
system justification. The study of the role of the environment in which they live. The
transportation and system justification within perception of agency that events do not occur
4 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 |
Fear of Crime and Cultivation Effect. Social and Psychological Predictors*
haphazardly is a basic social motivation (Fiske, of being victims of sexual assault (Schafer et al.,
2004). By contrast, the perception of unpleasant 2006).
uncertainty will create an internal imbalance that Literature on the relationship between social
can be stressful. However, not all people have class and fear of crime is inconsistent (Rader
enough control over themselves and their life et al., 2012). Overall, results show that lower
to appeal to inner motivations and seek outside class members suffer higher levels of fear of
regulations sources that can replace the absence crime (McKee & Milner, 2000; Pantazis, 2000),
of their personal control. It is then when dealing which can be explained by their propensity to
with a situation that creates fear, such as crime be in dangerous situations and have less material
news do, that it becomes necessary to justify the resources to protect against threats (Pantazis,
system in which people live. 2000).
Against the widespread generalized threat In relation to the area of residence, research
caused by criminality, people may defend has given greater importance to the individuals'
the status quo since they need to minimize perception about the area where they live and
the distress and anxiety that constant threat its structural conditions (Scarborough et al.,
provokes (Jost et al., 2009; Napier et al., 2010). 2010; Wyant, 2008). Specifically about levels
To study the association between narrative of objective victimization or crime rates, it has
transportation, system justification and fear of been noted that its relationship with fear of
crime in the framework of cultivation theory, crime is not linear, but it is mediated by factors
three covariates are considered relevant: gender, such as social cohesion and community disorder
social class and area of residence. perception (Abdullah , Hedayati, Bahauddian, &
The study also seeks to make a deeper analysis Javad, 2012; Villarreal & Silva, 2006).
on the association of social variables, that, so Thus, the hypotheses guiding this research
far, have reported an ambiguous relationship with state that people who are going to possess higher
fear of crime like social class (Rader, Cossman, & fear of crime (H1) are those that consume more
Porter, 2012), and level of crime in the area of television in general and particular newscasts;
residence (Scarborough et al., 2010) and to test (H2) likewise, they report greater narrative
relations that literature portrays as stable such as transportation in crime news (H3) less beliefs
gender (Schafer, Huebner, & Bynum, 2006). linked to system justification just as (H4) lower
It is known that those with higher fear of class people and women. Finally, (H5) a positive
crime (women and the elderly) are paradoxically association between the level of crime in the area
less likely to be victims, and this has been of residence and the fear of crime is anticipated.
conceptualized as the vulnerability perspective.
It suggests that fear is greater when the person Method
perceives itself in physical disadvantage against
threats, or when people acknowledge themselves
more susceptible to be victims of crime than other Design
groups (Scarborough et al., 2010; Wyant, 2008).
Especially in the case of sex, although women A quantitative, correlational and cross-sectional
are victims of crime to a lesser extent than study was carried out.
men, except in sex crimes, investigations report
higher fear levels of any type of crime in Participants
women ( Schafer et al., 2006; United Nations
Development Program [UNDP], 2005). It is
argued that these results are due to the gender Five hundred and sixteen young Costa Rican
disparity in the distribution of fear in general, and students, of Costa Rica´s Metropolitan Area,
the intense fear that women in particular suffer participated in the study. They had an average
age of M = 20.5 years (SD = 4.7), two hundred
| Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 | 5
Juan Diego García-Castro, Rolando Pérez-Sánchez.
and forty eight (48 %) studied in the national newscasts. On a scale (from) 1-5, where 1 = not
technical training system, and two hundred and applicable at all and 5 = applies a lot. How many
sixty eight (52 %) were taking general studies of these situations apply to you:’’
at the University of Costa Rica. Two hundred System Justification Scale.  It is an 8-item scale
and seventy three (52.9 %) were women and two developed by Jost and Kay (2005) that measures
hundred and forty three (47.1 %) were men. Two the degree to which people have an ideology
hundred and sixty one belonged to lower social that legitimizes the economic differences and
class (50.5 %) and two hundred and fifty five justifies the economic system they live in. The
belonged to upper social class (49.5 %). response scale ranges from 1 = strongly disagree
They filled out the questionnaire during class and 5 = strongly agree. It includes items such
hours with the presence of a researcher who as ''In general, society is fair.'' and '' In the Costa
previously explained the research. They were Rican society everyone gets what they deserve.''
informed of the study´s objectives and it was It obtained a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of α =
made clear that their participation was voluntary 0.71. This in an independent variable.
and data processing anonymous. The introductory question was ‘‘Here are a
series of sentences to know how you perceive the
Instruments society. On a scale from 1-5, where 1 = strongly
disagree and 5 = strongly agree, please mark with
an X the option that best meets your thinking’’
Data were collected through a paper self- Weekly hours spent watching television and
administered questionnaire that had an informed newscasts.  They were measured through a
consent as its first page. The following measures weekly schedule table. The participant read
were included: the instruction ‘‘Please, think of the number
Fear of crime.  Measured using an adaptation of hours you spend watching TV during the
of the fear of crime scale by Ruiz (2007; Ruiz week. Now make a Schedule with the number
& Turcios, 2009). The measure comprises four of hours watching television, scoring an X in
items on the degree of fear of crime felt at home, the corresponding hours’’ and they had to mark
neighborhood, city and country. It assessed the hours spent daily watching television and
personal fear of victimization. Each item had a newscasts. Subsequently, the hours were summed
Likert scale with five options, ranging from 1 = up to obtain the total amount of weekly hours
not at all to 5 = a lot. It presented an average consumed. Those are independent variables.
reliability of α = 0.75, as measured by Cronbach's The use of measures involving cognitive
alpha coefficient. This is the dependent variable. elaboration for the participants are
Narrative Transportation Scale.  Narrative recommended to reduce inaccurate or biased
transportation was measured with a 16 item scale questions (Frey, Benesch, & Stutzer, 2007). The
of a rate response of 1 = does not apply at measure used in this research comes from other
all, and 5 = applies a lot. It was developed by work done on the subject (Pérez & Torres, 2012).
Green and Brock (2000) and adapted by the Level of crime in the area of residence.  Data
authors for TV news reception. It measures the was collected in San José (capital) and San
degree of mental and emotional implication as Ramón- Alajuela, which are two locations in the
well as the attention given to crime news in metropolitan area of Costa Rica characterized
newscasts. It features items such as ''I imagined by different levels of criminality according to
myself at the news’ scene'' and ''I paid all my the County Safety Index (CSI) ( INEC, 2011;
attention to the news as I watched it.'' It obtained UNDP, 2005). The CSI is composed by rates
a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of α = 0.76. This of intentional homicide, robbery and theft, and
in an independent variable. domestic violence in a range that varies from zero
The introductory question was ‘‘Think about to one. Lower values of the index correspond to
what happens when you see a news event in low security levels (less secure) and higher values
6 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 |
Fear of Crime and Cultivation Effect. Social and Psychological Predictors*
to higher security levels (safer). San José has a low Analysis
security level (0.28) and San Ramón has a high
security level (0.84) ( INEC, 2011; UNDP, 2005). The whole analysis was conducted using SPSS
All people lived in the area where the data were 17. First, basic data cleaning was performed.
collected. This is a co-variable. Second, basic descriptive analysis, of the
Social Class.  Social class was measured main study´s variables, were conducted. Third,
through the participants´ place of study. scales ´psychometric properties were assessed
Data was collected on two opposite places, via internal consistency coefficient Cronbach's
The National Learning Institute which brings alpha. Then, variables´ simple correlations
together young working class people who receive through the Pearson correlation coefficient
technical training and The University of Costa were calculated. Finally, in order to estimate
Rica, which is the main university in the country. the relative weight of predictor variables, in
The interviewees in the University of Costa Rica explaining the variance of the degree of fear,
were first-year college students who did not work a hierarchical regression analysis (stepwise) in
and did not present socio-economic assistance three blocks was made. In the first block the
or scholarship. In order to contrast the place social variables: sex, crime levels in the area of
of study, as a social class predictor, they were residence, and social class were simultaneously
asked about their parents’ educational level, and entered. In the second block, media consumption
an index of educational level was made. The variables: amount of weekly hours spent in
educational level of parents has been presented television and newscasts consumption were
as a reliable indicator of social class by reasons entered. In the third block, the psychological
of its incidence on beliefs, perceptions, lifestyle, variables: narrative transportation and system
behavior, and coping psychological tendencies justification were entered.
among people (Stephens, Markus, & Townsend,
2007). The association between the place of
study and the parents’ educational level showed Results
a significant relationship (r = 0.28, p < 0.001).
This is a co-variable. Table 1 presents the correlation matrix of the
variables.
Procedures Table 1
Descriptive statistics, internal consistency
First, the battery of instruments were reviewed coefficients, and bivariate correlations between the
by experts and analyzed through a series study´s variables
of individual cognitive interviews (Collins,
2003; Smith-Castro & Molina, 2011). People
from the places of study were interviewed to
clarify concepts, correct questions, concepts or
misguided instructions. Second, a pilot test
was conducted with a sample of 150 students
to improve the questionnaire´s final version.
Students were contacted in their places of study
while they were receiving lessons. Answering
the questionnaire took approximately 25 minutes
and the data-gathering period lasted one month. Note.**p < 0.01, *p < 0.05
The degree of fear was significantly associated
with sex (r = - 0.11, p < 0.01), social class (r = -
| Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 | 7
Juan Diego García-Castro, Rolando Pérez-Sánchez.
0.13, p < 0.01), system justification (r = - 0.12, Discussion
p < 0.01), narrative transportation (r = 0.19, p
< 0.01), and weekly hours of news consumption Results showed that the number of hours spent
(r = 0.18, p < 0.05). Women and lower- watching television and newscasts consumption
class people showed more fear, they had lower does not predict fear of crime while controlling
system justification, felt more ''transportation'', for psychological variables. In contrast, predictors
and consumed more weekly newscasts. Table 2 of fear of crime confirmed in this research
shows the summary of the hierarchical regression were: people who experienced more narrative
(stepwise) results. transportation, less system justification as
Table 2 women, and low social class.
Summary of hierarchical regression analysis for In social sciences, fear of crime has been
degree of fear prediction studied for more than five decades. Nevertheless,
its results are far from being conclusive or all
its relationships established (Khom et al., 2012).
There is little research outside the western
industrialized countries (Karakus et al., 2010),
and in general, researchers have recognized so far
the necessity to amplify and go deeper into the
subject (Scarborough et al., 2010).
The classical cultivation theory, which was
the first hypothesis, '' (H1) people who
consume more hours of television and newscasts
will present more fear of crime,'' was not
confirmed. The weekly hours of television
2 2 and newscast consumption modestly contributeNote. R  = 0.04 for Step 1 (p < 0.001). R
2 to the prediction of fear of crime and they= 0.05, ∆ R  = 0.012 for Step 2 (p < 0.001). do not predict fear of crime when narrative
R² = 0.08, ∆ R2 = 0.03 for Step 3 (p <
0.001). ***p ≤ 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05. transportation and system justification are
introduced into the equation of regression model.
From the social variables block, sex (β = One of the main criticisms of cultivation theory
- 0.15, p < 0.001) and social class (β = - is its ambiguous empirical demonstration despite
0.14, p < 0.01) contributed to the degree of its conceptual richness (Shanahan & Morgan,
fear within a significant model F (3, 506) = 7 2003).
742, p < 0.001) explaining 4% of the variance. With respect to television, it has been argued
The addition of the block concerning media that it becomes only one source of information
consumption variables, specifically number of among the wide variety of the existent sources
weekly hours of television (β = - 0.09, p < 0.05) (Gross & Aday, 2003). Nonetheless, what people
and newscasts consumption (β = 0.09, p < 0.05) live and perceive as natural is what matters the
increased the percentage of explained variance most in order to cause fear, although, not to
in a significant model F(5,504)= 5 942, p < cause a widespread perception of threat. Gross
0.001, which explains 5% of the degree of fear and Aday (2003) conclude that the amount of
variance. Finally, the addition of the third block television and TV news consumption causes a
with psychological variables showed that both widespread perception of threat but not directly
system justification (β = - 0.09, p < 0.05) and fear.
narrative transportation (β = 0.15, p < 0.001) From other perspectives, it has been argued
increased the percentage of explained variance in that newscasts affect fear of crime when the news
a significant model F(7,502)= 6 775, p < 0.001 ´ contents are consistent with experience (Khom
which explains 8% of the degree of fear variance. et al., 2012). Television and newscasts would
8 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 |
Fear of Crime and Cultivation Effect. Social and Psychological Predictors*
reinforce what people live; however, it would give place to stability, balance, and decreasing
not replace it (Eschholz et al., 2003; Weitzer uncertainty (García-Castro, 2010; Jost et al.,
& Kubrin, 2004). For this reason, this research 2004); however, until now, their relationship has
expanded the cultivation hypothesis, introducing not been empirically shown.
variables that have not been empirically tested A possible explanation for the decrease in the
before such as narrative transportation (Green fear of crime with system justification becomes
& Brock, 2000), and system justification beliefs that people have a natural need to control
(Jost & Thompson, 2000). the environment in which they live (Fiske,
Recently, in the search for possible variables 2004). When the environment appears more
that may affect the cultivation process , threatening, system justification compensates the
narrative transportation has been considered psychological distress that the threat conveys.
as an opportunity to go deeper into the It has been shown that system justification
effects that media exposure can have on the contributes to create psychological well-being
individual (Bilandzic & Buselle, 2008, 2011). (Rankin, Jost, & Wakslak, 2009).
The second hypothesis “(H2) those who report The integration of narrative transportation
more narrative transportation in crime news and system justification within the cultivation
experience greater fear of crime'' was supported process in predicting fear of crime could state
by the results, and it becomes the variable that that a low system justification could be associated
predicts higher fear of crime. with a low societal legitimation supported by
It seems that the narrative transportation crime news that precisely indicate that the
experience reinforces the selection of programs government, for example, is deficient in solving
and news that the individual chooses; especially, this problem. This also occurs when people are
through the process of transportation and the prone to narrative transportation increase in the
increasing knowledge on a subject, facilitates the context of watching news.
understanding of the stories presented. A greater People with high narrative transportation will
feeling of narrative transportation will lead to be more easily persuaded by watching crime news
a higher probability of adopting the emotions regarding the presence of a society permeated
that the narration develops (Bilandzic & Buselle, by crime and supporting low system justification.
2008, 2011). This could explain the association with fear of
The cultivation process has a motivational crime and cultivation effect. These are possible
component that directs people to choose those interpretations that must be further studied. A
shows in which they experience higher levels line of research of great relevance opens.
of transportation. The persuasion component In fear of crime research, system justification
predicts that this tendency results in an intense may contribute to clarify the socio-cognitive and
uncritical view of the story consumed, and ideological relations that occur in the person
this guides the adoption of the portrayed who experiences fear. In addition, it goes deeper
worldview, and to experience the emotions that into the psychological consequences that fear of
are transmitted (Bilandzic & Buselle, 2008, crime produces. Among the socio demographic
2011). variables, the fourth hypothesis “(H4) lower class
Considering the uncritical view of reality people and women will present higher fear of
that can cause narrative transportation, the crime” was also supported. This result supports
relationship between fear of crime and beliefs on the vulnerability perspective.
system justification supports the third hypothesis: The incidence of gender is a consistent result
“(H3) people with less beliefs on system that numerous international studies pointed out
justification will present greater fear of crime'', (Scarborough et al., 2010; Schafer et al., 2006).
and it is innovative. The two variables are Women´s perception about their vulnerability
theoretically supported by the cognitive and produces higher levels of fear of crime, which
emotional contribution that justifying the system has implications in their daily lives as well as
| Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 | 9
Juan Diego García-Castro, Rolando Pérez-Sánchez.
greater restrictions in the use of public space 2006). This result supports the perspective that
(Vargas & Rosero, 2004). Moreover, they present other variables such as the psychological or social
a preference for physically strong aggressive variables are more relevant than crime rates
couples to protect them (Snyder et al., 2011). themselves.
The result showing that the lower class is the The main limitations of the study are the
social sector with higher fear of crime contradicts specific context of Costa Rica, a small country
previous research in Costa Rica (Calderón, 2007: in Central America. However, this limitation
UNDP, 2005); nevertheless, it reinforces results could also be a stronghold if the country is
of international research (McKee & Milner, seen as a remarkable laboratory of research
2000; Pantazis, 2000). This contradiction may be on fear of crime. Another limitation is the
due to the intensity of crime news in the media, student sample. Young people have specific
and the recent relevance that the subject has characteristics of television consumption that
taken in the country´s discourse. should not be generalizable to other populations.
The parallelism between the alternating For future research, it is necessary to
discourse about crime and the change in the deepen in the relationship between narrative
development model has been underlined in transportation and system justification within the
other researches (Huhn, 2009). The subject of cultivation process. The main contribution of
insecurity, in the national discourse, has occupied this paper is to extend the cultivation hypothesis
the void left by social security policies. This void with new variables that may help explaining the
is intended to be covered by police security, which cultivation of fear in the general population. It
places crime as one of the main keys to interpret is a complex relationship that empirical research
reality (Fonseca & Sandoval, 2005). has shown to be non-linear, and this research
Television promotes a feeling of insecurity relates it especially to narrative transportation
among people who watch crime news. The and beliefs about system justification. Certainly,
insecurity feeling not only comes from the raise of there is a need to go deeper into these
criminal acts, but also from the increasing supply relationships in order to keep contributing in the
of crime news in the media (Fonseca & Sandoval, study of fear of crime cultivation.
2005). These results indicate that it is precisely
the lower class who consumes more newscasts. Acknowledgements
Increasing the subject of crime in the national
´s speech has entrenched upper class in their This research had the support of the University
private spaces using diverse security measures of Costa Rica, project N°723-B1-334 (VI-UCR):
(van Lidth & Schütte, 2010; Vargas & Rosero, “Percepción de criminalidad y visionado de
2004). This promotes a feeling of generalized telenoticieros”.
fear among people without material resources,
who cannot imitate the upper class, as they must
face the threat of crime with less containment References
measures (Pantazis, 2000), and they also make
greater use of public spaces. Abdullah, A., Hedayati, M., Bahauddin, A., &
Finally, we found no support for the last Javad, M. (2012). The relationship between
hypothesis'' (H5) crime rate in the area of territorial functioning and victimization: A
residence may predict fear of crime.'' The finding comparative study of high and low crime
that crime rate in the area of residence is not rate estates. Procedia-Social and Behavioral
related to fear of crime is consistent with results Sciences, 50, 899-908. http://doi.org/10.101
of previous research findings, which suggest other 6/j.sbspro.2012.08.091
contextual variables such as social cohesion Appel, M. (2008). Fictional narratives cultivate
or community disorganization as more relevant just-world belief. Journal of Communication,
variables to predict fear (Villarreal & Silva,
10 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 |
Fear of Crime and Cultivation Effect. Social and Psychological Predictors*
58, 62-83. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-24 mediating effect of perceived neighborhood
66.2007.00374.x racial composition. Social Problems, 50(3),
Bilandzic, H., & Buselle, R. (2008). 395-415. http://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2003.50
Transportation and transportability in the .3.395
cultivation of genre-consistent attitudes Ferraro, K., & LaGrange, R. (1987). The
and estimates. Journal of Communication, measurement of fear of crime. Sociological
58, 508-509. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460- Inquiry, 57, 70-101. http://doi.org/10.1111/
2466.2008.00397.x j.1475-682X.1987.tb01181.x
Bilandzic, H., & Buselle, R. (2011). Enjoyment of Fiske, S. (2004). Social beings: A core motives
films as a function of narrative experience, approach to social psychology. New York:
perceived realism and transportability. Wiley.
Communications, 36, 29-50. http://doi.org/1 Fiske, S., & Taylor, S. (2013). Social cognition:
0.1515/COMM.2011.002 From brain to culture. London: Sage.
Brewer, P., & Ley, B. (2010). Media use and public Fonseca, K., & Sandoval, C. (2005). Medios de
perceptions of DNA evidence. Science comunicación e (in)seguridad ciudadana en
Communication, 32(1), 93-117. http://doi.o Costa Rica. San José, CR: Programa de las
rg/10.1177/1075547009340343 Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo.
Calderón, R. (2007). Delito y cambio Frey, B., Benesch, C., & Stutzer, A. (2007). Does
social en Costa Rica: resultados de watching TV make us happy? Journal of
investigación (Working Paper Series N Economic Psychology, 28, 283-313. http://do
°12). Miami: Center for Latin American i.org/10.1016/j.joep.2007.02.001
Studies, University of Miami. Retrieved García-Castro, J. D. (2010). Ideología de la
from http://www.sitemason.com/files/iI93Y desigualdad: Análisis de la investigación
A/MALL%20GRANTS%202008%20REP empírica en psicología social. Revista
ORTSRodolfoCalderon.pdf Electrónica de Psicología Política, 8(24),
Collins, D. (2003). Pretesting survey 67-87. Recuperado de http://www.psicopol
instruments: An overview of cognitive .unsl.edu.ar/diciembre2010_Nota5.pdf
methods. Quality of Life Research, 12(3), García-Castro, J. D. (2012). Percepción de
229-238. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.o criminalidad en Costa Rica: clases sociales,
rg/stable/4038871 televisión e ideología (Serie Documentos
Diefenbach, D., & West, M. (2007). Television de Trabajo). Becas de Investigación.
and attitudes toward mental health issues: Buenos Aires: CLACSO. Retrieved
Cultivation analysis and the third-person from http://biblioteca.clacso.edu.ar/clacso/
effect. Journal of Community Psychology, becas/20120509124519/garciacastro.pdf
35(2), 181-195. http://doi.org/10.1002/jcop Green, M., & Brock, T. (2000). The role of
.20142 transportation in the persuasiveness of
Doyle, A. (2006). How no to think about crime in public narratives. Journal of Personality and
the media. Canadian Journal of Criminology Social Psychology, 79(5), 701-721. Retrieved
and Criminal Justice, 48(6), 867-885. http:// from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed
doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.48.6.867 /11079236
Edson, J. (2004). Imagine yourself in the Green, M., & Clark, J. (2012). Transportation
product: Mental simulation, narrative into narrative worlds: Implications for
transportation, and persuasion. Journal of entertainment media influences on tobacco
Advertising, 33(2), 37-48. Retrieved from h use. Addiction, 108, 477-484. http://doi.org
ttp://www.jstor.org/stable/4189256 /10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.04088.x
Eschholz, S., Chiricos, T., & Gertz, M. Gross, K., & Aday, S. (2003). The scary world
(2003). Television and fear of crime: in your living room and neighborhood
Program types, audience traits, and the crime rates, and personal experience to test
| Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 | 11
Juan Diego García-Castro, Rolando Pérez-Sánchez.
agenda setting and cultivation. Journal of as independent predictors of self-esteem,
Communication, 53, 411-426. http://doi.org ethnocentrism, and social policy attitudes
/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb02599.x among African American and European
Holbert, R., Shah, D., & Kwak, N. (2004). Americans. Journal of Experimental Social
Fear, authority, and justice: Crime-related Psychology, 36, 209-232. http://doi.org/10.1
TV viewing and endorsements of capital 006/jesp.1999.1403
punishment and gun ownership. Journalism Karakus, O., McGarrel, E., & Basibuyuk, O.
& Mass Communication Quarterly, 18(2), (2010). Fear of crime among citizens of
343-363. http://doi.org/10.1177/10776990 Turkey. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38,
0408100208 174-184. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.
Huhn, S. (2009, September). The culture of fear 2010.02.006
and control in Costa Rica (II): The talk of Kay, A., Gaucher, D., Napier, J., Callan, M., &
crime and social changes (Working Paper Laurin, K. (2008). God and government:
N° 108). Leibniz, DE: German Institute Testing a compensatory control mechanism
of Global and Area Studies. Retrieved for the support of external systems. Journal
from https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/publ of Personality and Social Psychology, 95,
ication/the-culture-of-fear-and-control-in- 18-35. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.9
costa-rica-ii-the-talk-of-crime-and-social-c 5.1.18
hanges Kohm, S., Waid-Lindberg, C., Weinrath, M.,
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos. O’Connor, T., & Dobbs, R. (2012).
(2011, May). X Censo Nacional de The impact of media on fear of
Población y VI de Vivienda. Resultados crime among university students: A cross
Generales. San José, CR: Author. Retrieved national comparison. Canadian Journal of
from https://www.cipacdh.org/pdf/Resultad Criminology and Criminal Justice, 54(1),
os_Generales_Censo_2011.pdf 67-100. http://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.2011.E
Jost, J., Banaji, M., & Nosek, B. (2004). .01
A decade of system justification theory: Lee, M., Bichard, S., Irey, M., Walth,
Accumulated evidence of conscious and H., & Carlson, A. (2009). Television
unconscious bolstering of the status quo. viewing and ethnic stereotypes: Do college
Political Psychology, 25, 881-919. Retrieved students from stereotypical perceptions
from http://www.psych.nyu.edu/jost/Jost, of ethnic groups as a result of heavy
%20Banaji,%20&%20Nosek television consumption? Howard Journal of
%20(2004)%20A%20Decade%20of Communications, 20(1), 95-110. http://doi.
%20System%20Justificati.pdf org/10.1080/10646170802665281
Jost, J., Federico, C., & Napier, J. (2009). McKee, K. J., & Milner, C. (2000). Health, fear
Political ideology: Its structure, functions, of crime and psychosocial functioning in
and elective affinities. Annual Review of older people. Journal of Health Psychology,
Psychology, 60, 307-337. http://doi.org/10.1 5, 473-486. http://doi.org/10.1177/135910
146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163600 530000500406
Jost, J., & Kay, A. C. (2005). Exposure to Morgan, M., & Shanahan, J. (2010). The state
benevolent sexism and complementary of cultivation. Journal of Broadcasting &
gender stereotypes: Consequences for Electronic Media, 54(2), 337-355. http://dx.
specific and diffuse forms of system doi.org/10.1080/08838151003735018
justification. Journal of Personality and Social Napier, J., Thorisdottir, H., & Jost, J. (2010). The
Psychology, 88(3), 498-509. http://doi.org/1 joy of sexism? A multinational investigation
0.1037/0022-3514.88.3.498 of hostile and benevolent justifications
Jost, J., & Thompson, E. (2000). Group-based for gender inequality and their relations
dominance and opposition to equality to subjective well-being. Sex Roles, 62,
12 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 |
Fear of Crime and Cultivation Effect. Social and Psychological Predictors*
405-419. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-00 Justice, 40, 134-141. http://doi.org/10.1016/
9-9712-7 j.jcrimjus.2012.02.003
Niederdeppe, J., Franklin, E., Goldstein, K., & Rankin, L., Jost, J., & Wakslak, C. (2009).
Pribble, J. (2010). Does local television System justification and the meaning of
news coverage cultivate fatalistic belief life: Are the existential benefits of ideology
about cancer prevention? Journal of distributed unequally across racial groups.
Communication, 60, 230-253. http://doi.org Social Justice Research, 22, 312-333. http://d
/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01474.x oi.org/10.1007/s11211-009-0100-9
Pantazis, C. (2000). Fear of crime, vulnerability, Riddle, K. (2010). Always on my mind: Exploring
and poverty. British Journal of Criminology, how frequent, recent, and vivid television
40, 414-436. http://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/40. portrayals are used in the formation of
3.414 social reality judgments. Media Psychology,
Pennebaker, J., & Stone, L. (2004). Translating 13, 155-179. http://doi.org/10.1080/15213
traumatic experiences into language: 261003800140
Implications for child abuse and long- Romer, D., Jamieson, K., & Aday, S. (2003).
term health. In L. J. Koening, L. Doll, Television news and the cultivation of fear
A. O’Leary & W. Pequegnat (Eds.), From of crime. Journal of Communication, 53,
child sexual abuse to adult sexual risk: 88-104. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466
Trauma, revictimization, and intervention .2003.tb03007.x
(pp. 201-216). Washington, DC: American Rountree, P., & Land, K. (1996). Perceived risk
Psychological Association. versus fear of crime: Empirical evidence
Pérez, R., & Torres, D. (2012). Recepción of conceptually distinct reactions in survey
de series televisivas y formación de data. Social Forces, 74, 1353-1376. http://d
esquemas cognoscitivos asociados a sus oi.org/10.1093/sf/74.4.1353
personajes: un estudio con niños y Ruiz, J. (2007). Cultura ciudadana, miedo al
adolescentes costarricenses. Universitas crimen y victimización: un análisis de sus
Psychologica, 11(4), 1291-1302. Retrieved interrelaciones desde la perspectiva del
from http://revistas.javeriana.edu.co/sitio/p tejido social. Acta Colombiana de Psicología,
sychologica/sccs/articulo.php?id=1098 10(1), 75-64. Retrieved from http://www.re
Petty, R. E., Priester, J. R., & Briñol, P. (2002). dalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/798/79810107.pdf
Mass media attitude change: Implications Ruiz, J., & Turcios, L. (2009). Percepción
of the elaboration likelihood model of de seguridad, victimización y cultura
persuasion. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann ciudadana: sus relaciones en cinco
(Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and contextos iberoamericanos. Pensamiento
research (2nd ed., pp. 155-198). Hillsdale, Psicológico, 6(13), 193-202. Retrieved
NJ: Erlbaum. from http://www.redalyc.uaemex.mx/src/in
Presson, P., & Benassi, V. (1996). icio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=80112469013
Illusion of control: A meta-analytic Salmi, V., Smolej, M., & Kivivuori, J. (2007).
review. Journal of Social Behavior and Crime victimization, exposure to crime
Personality, 11(3), 493-510. Retrieved news and social trust among adolescents.
from https://www.researchgate.net/publica Young, 15(3), 255-272. http://doi.org/10.11
tion/240038375_Illusion_of_control_A_m 77/110330880701500303
eta-analytic_review Scarborough, B., Like-Haislip, T., Novak, K.,
Rader, N., Cossman, J., & Porter, J. (2012). Fear Lucas, W., & Alarid, F. (2010). Assessing
of crime and vulnerability: Using a national the relationship between individual’s
simple of Americans to examine two characteristics, neighborhood context and
competing paradigms. Journal of Criminal fear of crime. Journal of Criminal Justice,
| Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 | 13
Juan Diego García-Castro, Rolando Pérez-Sánchez.
38, 819-226. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimj Research, 40, 797-817. http://doi.org/10.10
us.2010.05.010 86/673383
Schafer, J., Huebner, B., & Bynum, T. (2006). van Lidth, M., & Schütte, O. (2010).
Fear of crime and criminal victimization: GAM(ismo). Cultura y desarrollo urbano
Gender-based contrasts. Journal of Criminal en la gran área metropolitana de Costa
Justice, 34, 285-301. http://doi.org/10.1016/ Rica. Cuaderno de Ciencias Sociales, N.° 155.
j.jcrimjus.2006.03.003 Costa Rica: FLACSO.
Shanahan, J., & Morgan, M. (2003). Television Vargas, J., & Rosero, L. (2004). La cultura
and its viewers: Cultivation theory and política de la democracia en Costa Rica. Un
research. Cambridge: Cambridge University estudio del proyecto de opinión pública en
Press. América Latina (OPAL). San José, CR:
Shrum, L. (1996). Psychological processes Centro Centroamericano de Población.
underlying cultivation effects: Further Villarreal, A., & Silva, B. (2006). Social
test of construct accessibility. cohesion, criminal victimization and
Human Communication Research, 22(4), perceived risk of crime in Brazilian
482-509. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-295 neighborhoods. Social Forces, 84(3),
8.1996.tb00376.x 1725-1753. http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1353/
Smith-Castro, V., & Molina, M. (2011). sof.2006.0073
Cuaderno metodológico 5. La entrevista Weitzer, R., & Kubrin, C. (2004). Breaking
cognitiva: guía para su aplicación en la news: How local TV news and real-world
evaluación y mejoramiento de instrumentos de conditions affect fear of crime. Justice
papel y lápiz. San José, CR: Instituto de Quarterly, 21(3), 497-520. http://doi.org/10
Investigaciones Psicológicas. .1080/07418820400095881
Snyder, J., Fessler, D., Tiokhin, L., Frederick, D., Wyant, B. (2008). Multi-level impacts of
Woo, S., & Navarrete, C. (2011). Trade- perceived incivilities and perceptions of
off in a dangerous world: Women’s fear crime risk on fear of crime. Journal of
of crime predicts preferences for aggressive Research in Crime and Delinquency, 45,
and formidable mates. Evolution and Human 39-64. http://doi.org/10.1177/0022427807
Behavior, 32(2), 127-137. http://doi.org/10. 309440
1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.08.007
Stephens, N., Markus, H., & Townsend, S. Notes
(2007). Choice as an act of meaning: The
case of social class. Journal of Personality and * Research article.
Social Psychology, 93(5), 814-830. http://do
i.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.814
United Nations Development Program.
(UNDP). (2005). Overcoming Fear: Citizen
(in)security and human development in
Costa Rica (National Human Development
Report 2005). San José, CR: Author.
Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/
default/files/costa_rica_2005_en.pdf
van Laer, T., de Ruyter, K., Visconti,
M., & Wetzels, M. (2014). The
extended transportation-imagery model:
A meta-analysis of the antecedents and
consequences of consumer’s narrative
transportation. Journal of Consumer
14 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 17 | No. 3 | 2018 |