STATE OF THE CLIMATE IN 2018 Special Supplement to the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society Vol. 100, No. 9, September 2019 STATE OF THE CLIMATE IN 2018 Editors Jessica Blunden Derek S. Arndt Chapter Editors Peter Bissolli Martin O. Jeffries Ahira Sánchez-Lugo Howard J. Diamond Tim Li Ted A. Scambos Matthew L. Druckenmiller Rick Lumpkin Carl J. Schreck III Robert J. H. Dunn Ademe Mekonnen Sharon Stammerjohn Catherine Ganter Emily Osborne Diane M. Stanitski Nadine Gobron Jacqueline A. Richter-Menge Kate M. Willett Technical Editor Andrea Andersen AmericAn meteorologicAl Society Cover Credits: Front/baCk: © ron Busey, International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks Ice-rich permafrost exposed on the face of Itkillik Bluff on the North Slope of Alaska. The bluffs and surrounding ice-rich permafrost have lost large volumes of ice over recent years due to lateral erosion and surface disturbances such as wildfire and climate warming. Members of NASA’s Arctic-Boreal Vulnerability Experiment visit this site annually to collect frozen soil and ground ice for carbon analysis. The team also uses regional airborne and space-borne remote sensing to identify potential volume of major ground ice loss in previously unidentified ice-rich parts of the landscape. How to cite this document: Citing the complete report: Blunden, J. and D. S. Arndt, Eds., 2019: State of the Climate in 2018. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 100 (9), Si–S305, doi:10.1175/2019BAMSStateoftheClimate.1. Citing a chapter (example): Scambos, T. and S. Stammerjohn Eds., 2019: Antarctica and the Southern Ocean [in “State of the Climate in 2018”]. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 100 (9), S169–S188, doi:10.1175/2019BAMSStateoftheClimate.1. Citing a section (example): Meijers, A. J., B. Sallée, A. Grey, K. Johnson, K. Arrigo, S. Swart, B. King, and M. Mazloff, 2019: Southern Ocean [in “State of the Climate in 2018”]. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 100 (9), S181–S185, doi:10.1175/2019BAMSStateoftheClimate.1. EDITOR AND AUTHOR AFFILIATIONS (alphabetiCal by name) Ades, M., European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Bernhard, G. H., Biospherical Instruments Inc., San Diego, Forecasts, Reading, United Kingdom California Adler, R., University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland Berrisford, Paul, NCAS-Climate, European Centre for Aldeco, Laura S., Servicio Meteorológico Nacional, Buenos Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, Reading, United Kingdom Aires, Argentina Berry, David I., National Oceanography Centre, Alejandra, G., Instituto Geofísico del Perú, Lima, Perú Southampton, United Kingdom Alfaro, Eric J., Center for Geophysical Research and School of Bettio, Lynette, Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, Victoria, Physics, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica Australia Aliaga-Nestares, Vannia, Servisâo Nacional de Bhatt, U. S., Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Meteorología e Hidrología del Perú, Lima, Perú Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska Allan, Richard P., University of Reading, Reading, United Biskaborn, B. K., Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre Kingdom for Polar and Marine Research, Potsdam, Germany Allan, Rob, Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, United Kingdom Bissolli, Peter, Deutscher Westterdienst, WMO RA VI Alves, Lincoln M., Centro de Ciencias do Sistema Terrestre, Regional Climate Centre Network, Offenbach, Germany Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, Cachoeira Paulista, Bjella, Kevin L., Cold Regions Research and Engineering Sao Paulo, Brazil Laboratory (CRREL), Fairbanks, Alaska Amador, Jorge A., Center for Geophysical Research and Bjerke, J. K., Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, School of Physics, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Tromsø, Norway Rica Blake, Eric S., NOAA/NWS National Hurricane Center, Andersen, J. K., Geological Survey of Denmark and Miami, Florida Greenland, Copenhagen, Denmark Blenkinsop, Stephen, School of Engineering, Newcastle Anderson, John, Department of Atmospheric and Planetary University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom Science, Hampton University, Hampton, Virginia Blunden, Jessica, NOAA/NESDIS National Centers for Arndt, Derek S., NOAA/NESDIS National Centers for Environmental Information, Asheville, North Carolina Environmental Information, Asheville, North Carolina Bock, Olivier, Paris Institute of Globe Physics, Université Paris Arosio, C., University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France Arrigo, Kevin, Department of Earth System Science, Stanford Bosilovich, Michael G., Global Modeling and Assimilation University, Stanford, California Office, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Azorin-Molina, César, Regional Climate Group, Department Maryland of Earth Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Boucher, Olivier, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France Sweden; Centro de Investigaciones sobre Desertificación – Box, J. E., Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, Spanish National Research Council, Moncada (Valencia), Spain Copenhagen, Denmark Bardin, M. Yu, Yu. A. Izrael Institute of Global Climate and Boyer, Tim, NOAA/NESDIS National Centers for Ecology, and Institute of Geography, Russian Academy of Environmental Information, Silver Spring, Maryland Sciences, Russia Braathen, Geir, WMO Atmospheric Environment Research Barichivich, Jonathan, Instituto de Geografía, Pontificia Division, Geneva, Switzerland Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile Bringas, Francis. G., NOAA/OAR Atlantic Oceanographic Barreira, Sandra, Argentine Naval Hydrographic Service, and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML), Miami, Florida Buenos Aires, Argentina Bromwich, David. H., Byrd Polar and Climate Research Baxter, Stephen, NOAA/NWS Climate Prediction Center, Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio College Park, Maryland Brown, Alrick, Department of Physics, The University of the Beck, H. E., Department of Civil and Environmental West Indies, Jamaica Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey Brown, R., Climate Research Division, Environment and Becker, Andreas, Global Precipitation Climatology Centre, Climate Change Canada, Montréal, Quebec, Canada Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach am Main., Germany Brown, Timothy J., Western Regional Climate Center, Bell, Gerald D., NOAA/NWS Climate Prediction Center, Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV College Park, Maryland Buehler, S. A., Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany Bellouin, Nicolas, University of Reading, Reading, United Cáceres, Luis, Instituto Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología Kingdom de Ecuador, Ecuador Belmont, M., Seychelles National Meteorological Services, Calderón, Blanca, Center for Geophysical Research, Pointe Larue, Mahé, Seychelles University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica Benedetti, Angela, European Centre for Medium-Range Camargo, Suzana J., Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Weather Forecasts, Reading, United Kingdom Columbia University, Palisades, New York Benedict, Imme, Meteorology and Air Quality Group, Campbell, Jayaka D., Department of Physics, The University Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, of the West Indies, Jamaica Netherlands STATE OF THE CLIMATE IN 2018 SEPTEMBER 2019 | Si Hazeleger, Wilco, Meteorology and Air Quality Group, Jia, G., Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Sciences, Beijing, China Netherlands; Netherlands eScience Center, Amsterdam, Jiménez, C., Estellus, Paris, France Netherlands; and Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Jin, Xiangze, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Utrecht, Netherlands. Hole, Massachusetts He, Q., Earth System Modeling Center, Nanjing University of John, Viju, EUMETSAT, Darmstadt, Germany Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, China Johnsen, Bjørn, Norwegian Radiation and Nuclear Safety, Heidinger, Andrew K., NOAA/NESDIS/STAR University of Østerås, Norway Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Johnson, Gregory C., NOAA/OAR Pacific Marine Heim, Jr., Richard R., NOAA/NESDIS National Centers for Environmental Laboratory, Seattle, Washington Environmental Information, Asheville, North Carolina Johnson, Kenneth S., Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Hemming, D. L., Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, Institute, Moss Landing, California United Kingdom; Birmingham Institute of Forest Research, Johnson, Bryan, NOAA/OAR Earth System Research Birmingham University, Birmingham, United Kingdom Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division, and University of Hendricks, Stefan, Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Colorado, Boulder, Colorado Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Jones, Philip D., Climatic Research Unit, School of Germany Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, Hernández, Rafael, Instituto Nacional de Meteorología e United Kingdom Hidrología de Venezuela (INAMEH), Caracas, Venezuela Jumaux, Guillaume, Météo France, Direction Interrégionale Hersbach, H. E., European Centre for Medium-Range pour l’Océan Indien, Réunion Weather Forecasts, Reading, United Kingdom, Kabidi, Khadija, Direction de la Météorologie Nationale Hidalgo, Hugo G., Center for Geophysical Research and Maroc, Rabat, Morocco School of Physics, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Kaiser, J. W., Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Rica Germany; Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach, Germany Ho, Shu-peng (Ben), NOAA/NESDIS Center for Satellite Karaköylü, Erdem M., NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Applications and Research, College Park, Maryland Greenbelt, Maryland, and Science Application International Holmes, R. M., Woods Hole Research Center, Falmouth, Corporation, Beltsville, Maryland Massachusetts Karlsen, S.-R., Norut Northern Research Institute, Tromsø, Hu, Chuanmin, College of Marine Science, University of South Norway Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida Karnauskas, Mandy, NOAA/NMFS Southeast Fisheries Huang, Boyin, NOAA/NESDIS National Centers for Science Center, Miami, Florida Environmental Information, Asheville, North Carolina Kato, Seiji, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia Hubbard, Katherine, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Kazemi, A. Fazl, Islamic Republic of Iranian Meteorological Commission, St. Petersburg, Florida Organization, Iran Hubert, Daan, Royal Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy Kelble, Christopher, NOAA/OAR Atlantic Oceanographic (BIRA), Brussels, Belgium and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML), Miami, Florida Hurst, Dale F., Cooperative Institute for Research in Keller, Linda M., Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado Boulder, and Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, NOAA/OAR Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, Wisconsin Colorado Kennedy, John, Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, United Ialongo, Iolanda, Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Kingdom Finland Kholodov, A. L., Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Ijampy, J. A., Nigerian Meteorological Agency, Abuja, Nigeria Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska Inness, Antje, European Centre for Medium Range Weather Khoshkam, Mahbobeh, Islamic Republic of Iranian Forecasts, Reading, United Kingdom Meteorological Organization, Iran Isaac, Victor, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Kidd, R., Earth Observation Data Centre for Water Resources Toronto, Ontario, Canada Monitoring GmbH, Vienna, Austria Isaksen, K., Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Blindern, Killick, Rachel, Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, United Oslo, Norway Kingdom, Ishii, Masayoshi, Climate Research Department, Kim, Hyungjun, Institute of Industrial Science, The University Meteorological Research Institute, Japan Meteorological of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Agency, Tsukuba, Japan Kim, S.-J., Korea Polar Research Institute, Incheon, Republic of Jeffries, Martin O., Cold Regions Research and Engineering Korea Laboratory, ERDC-USACE, Hanover, New Hampshire King, A. D., University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia Jevrejeva, Svetlana, National Oceanography Centre, King, Brian A., National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, Liverpool, United Kingdom United Kingdom Siv | SEPTEMBER 2019 Massom, Robert A., Australian Antarctic-Division, and Mitchum, Gary T., College of Marine Science, University of Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research South Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida Centre, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia Mochizuki, Y., Tokyo Climate Center, Japan Meteorological May, Linda, Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Edinburgh, Agency, Japan United Kingdom Monselesan, Didier, CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, Mayer, Michael, Department of Meteorology and Geophysics, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; European Centre for Montzka, Stephen A., NOAA/OAR Earth System Research Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, Reading, United Kingdom Laboratory, Boulder, Colorado Mazloff, Matthew, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Mora, Natali, Center for Geophysical Research and School of University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California Physics, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica McBride, Charlotte, South African Weather Service, Morice, Colin, Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, United Pretoria, South Africa Kingdom McCabe, M., Division of Biological and Environmental Sciences Mosquera-Vásquez, Kobi, Instituto Geofísico del Perú, Lima, and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Perú Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia Mostafa, Awatif E., Department of Seasonal Forecast and McClelland, J. W., Marine Science Institute, University of Climate Research, Cairo Numerical Weather Prediction, Texas at Austin, Port Aransas, Texas Egyptian Meteorological Authority, Cairo, Egypt McEvoy, Daniel J., Western Regional Climate Center, Desert Mote, T., Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Research Institute, Reno, Nevada Athens, Georgia McGree, Simon, Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, Victoria, Mudryk, L., Climate Research Division, Environment and Australia Climate Change Canada, Downsview, Ontario, Canada McVicar, Tim R., CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra, Mühle, Jens, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of Australian Capital Territory; and Australian Research Council California San Diego, La Jolla, California Centre of Excellence for Climate Extremes, Sydney, New Mullan, A. Brett, National Institute of Water and South Wales, Australia Atmospheric Research, Ltd., Wellington, New Zealand Mears, Carl A., Remote Sensing Systems, Santa Rosa, Müller, Rolf, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany California Myneni, R., Department of Earth and Environment, Boston Meier, Walt, National Snow and Ice Data Center, University of University, Boston, Massachusetts Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, Colorado Nash, Eric R., Science Systems and Applications, Inc., NASA Meijers, Andrew, British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, United Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland Kingdom Nauslar, Nicholas J., NOAA/NWS/NCEP Storm Prediction Mekonnen, Ademe, Department of Physics, North Carolina Center, Norman, Oklahoma A & T State University, Greensboro, North Carolina Nerem , R. Steven, Colorado Center for Astrodynamics Mengistu Tsidu, G., Department of Earth and Environmental Research, Cooperative Institute for Research in Sciences, Botswana International University of Science and Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado Boulder, Technology, Palapye, Botswana, and Department of Physics, Boulder, Colorado Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Newman, Paul A., NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Menzel, W. Paul, Space Science and Engineering Center, Greenbelt, Maryland University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Nicolas, Julien P., European Centre for Medium-Range Merchant, Christopher J., Department of Meteorology, Weather Forecasts, Reading, United Kingdom University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom; National Nieto, Juan José, Centro Internacional para la Investigación Centre for Earth Observation, University of Reading, Reading, del Fenómeno de El Niño, Guayaquil, Ecuador United Kingdom Noetzli, Jeannette, WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Meredith, Michael P., British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, Research SLF, Davos-Dorf, Switzerland United Kingdom Osborn, Tim J., Climatic Research Unit, School of Merrifield, Mark A., Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California United Kingdom Miller, Ben, Cooperative Institute for Research in Osborne, Emily, NOAA/OAR Arctic Research Program, Silver Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado Boulder, and Spring, Maryland NOAA/OAR Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, Overland, J., NOAA/OAR Pacific Marine Environmental Colorado Laboratory, Seattle, Washington Miralles, Diego G., Laboratory of Hydrology and Water Oyunjargal, Lamjav, Hydrology and Environmental Management, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium Monitoring, Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology, National Misevicius, Noelia, Instituto Uruguayo de Meteorología, Agency for Meteorology, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia Montevideo, Uruguay Park, T., Department of Earth and Environment, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts Svi | SEPTEMBER 2019 e. Greenland ice sheet ..................................................................................................................................... 150 1. Surface melt ................................................................................................................................................151 2. Ice mass balance ........................................................................................................................................151 3. Albedo ..........................................................................................................................................................151 4. Surface air temperature ......................................................................................................................... 152 5. Marine-terminating glaciers ................................................................................................................... 152 f. Terrestrial permafrost................................................................................................................................. 153 1. Permafrost temperatures ....................................................................................................................... 154 2. Active layer thickness ............................................................................................................................. 156 Sidebar 5.2: warming and thawing permaFroSt and impactS on inFraStrUctUre ................................ 157 g. Terrestrial snow cover ................................................................................................................................ 160 h. River discharge ...............................................................................................................................................161 i. Tundra greenness ......................................................................................................................................... 163 j. Ozone and UV radiation ............................................................................................................................. 165 6. ANTARCTICA AND THE SOUTHERN OCEAN ...................................................................... 169 a. Overview ........................................................................................................................................................ 169 b. Atmospheric circulation and surface observations ............................................................................. 170 c. Net precipitation (P – E) ............................................................................................................................. 173 Sidebar 6.1: record-warm conditionS at the SoUth pole and the UnUSUal atmoSpheric patternS aSSociated with them ................................................................................................................... 173 d. Seasonal melt extent and duration .......................................................................................................... 177 e. Sea ice extent, concentration, and seasonality .................................................................................... 178 f. Southern Ocean ............................................................................................................................................ 181 1. Surface mixed layer properties ............................................................................................................ 181 Sidebar 6.2: recent driFt and evolUtion oF large icebergS in the SoUthern ocean ......................... 181 2. Ocean color: phytoplankton abundance ............................................................................................ 183 3. Air–sea carbon dioxide fluxes .............................................................................................................. 183 g. 2018 Antarctic ozone hole ......................................................................................................................... 185 7. REGIONAL CLIMATES ........................................................................................................................... 189 a. Overview ........................................................................................................................................................ 189 b. North America ............................................................................................................................................. 189 1. Canada ........................................................................................................................................................ 189 2. United States ..............................................................................................................................................191 3. Mexico ......................................................................................................................................................... 193 Sidebar 7.1: record-Setting 2018 caliFornia wildFireS ............................................................................ 195 c. Central America and the Caribbean ....................................................................................................... 197 1. Central America ....................................................................................................................................... 197 2. Caribbean ................................................................................................................................................... 198 d. South America ............................................................................................................................................... 200 1. Northern South America ...................................................................................................................... 200 2. Central South America ........................................................................................................................... 202 Sidebar 7.2: heavy SnowFallS in the perUvian andeS: the wetteSt winter oF the laSt 19 yearS ................................................................................................................................................... 203 3. Southern South America ........................................................................................................................ 205 e. Africa ............................................................................................................................................................... 207 1. North Africa ..............................................................................................................................................208 2. West Africa ................................................................................................................................................ 210 3. Eastern Africa .............................................................................................................................................211 4. Southern Africa .........................................................................................................................................212 5. Western Indian Ocean island countries ..............................................................................................214 f. Europe and the Middle East ........................................................................................................................217 1. Overview .....................................................................................................................................................217 2. Western Europe ........................................................................................................................................219 3. Central Europe ......................................................................................................................................... 220 Sidebar 7.3: the long heat wave and droUght in eUrope in 2018 ..........................................................222 4. The Nordic and Baltic countries .......................................................................................................... 224 5. Iberian Peninsula ....................................................................................................................................... 225 STATE OF THE CLIMATE IN 2018 SEPTEMBER 2019 | Sxiii c. Central America and the Caribbean—A. Sánchez-Lugo, Ed. Guatemala. The station distribution covers the rel- 1) Central ameriCa— J. A. Amador, H. G. Hidalgo, evant regimes of precipitation (Magaña et al. 1999) E. J. Alfaro, B. Calderón, and N. Mora and temperature (Hidalgo et al. 2019, and references For this region, nine stations from five countries within) on the Caribbean and Pacific slopes of Cen- were analyzed (Fig. 7.8). Stations on the Caribbean tral America. Precipitation and temperature records slope are: Philip Goldson International Airport, for the stations analyzed were provided either by Cen- Belize; Puerto Barrios, Guatemala; Puerto Lempira, tral American National Weather Services (CA-NWS), Honduras; and Puerto Limón, Costa Rica. Stations NOAA, or University of Costa Rica. Anomalies are located on the Pacific slope are: Tocumen Interna- reported using a 1981–2010 base period and were cal- tional Airport and David, Panamá; Liberia, Costa culated using CA-NWS data. The methodologies used Rica; Choluteca, Honduras; and Puerto San José, for all variables can be found in Amador et al. (2011). Fig. 7.8. Mean surface temperature (Tm; °C) frequency (F; days), and accumulated pentad precipitation (P; mm) time series are shown for nine stations (blue dots) in Central America: (1) Philip Goldson Interna- tional Airport, Belize; (2) Puerto Barrios, Guatemala; (3) Puerto Lempira, Honduras; (4) Puerto Limón, Costa Rica; (5) Tocumen International Airport, Panamá; (6) David, Panamá; (7) Liberia, Costa Rica; (8) Choluteca, Honduras; and (9) Puerto San José, Guatemala. The blue solid line represents the 1981–2010 average values and the red solid line shows 2018 values. Vertical dashed lines show the mean temperature for 2018 (red) and the 1981–2010 period (blue). Vectors indicate Jul wind anomalies at 925 hPa (1981–2010 base period). Shading depicts regional elevation (m). (Sources: NOAA/NCEI and CA-NWS.) STATE OF THE CLIMATE IN 2018 SEPTEMBER 2019 | S197 (i) Temperature slopes, especially with the mid-summer drought The mean temperature (Tm) frequency distribu- (Amador 1998, 2008; Hidalgo et al. 2019) as observed tion for the climatology and for 2018 for all stations in 2018. is shown in Fig. 7.8. Choluteca (Tm8) and Puerto San José (Tm9) on the Pacific slope of Central America (iii) Notable events and impacts each had a discernible shift in their statistical dis- Tropical cyclone activity during 2018 was low tributions toward warmer-than-normal conditions, in the Caribbean basin and in the eastern tropical whereas Puerto Lempira (Tm3) showed signs of mar- Pacific (ETP). Four systems reached tropical storm ginal warming. Philip Goldson International Airport category in the Caribbean basin (6°–24°N, 60°–92W): (Tm1), Puerto Barrios (Tm2), David (Tm5), and Tocu- Alberto (26 May), Isaac (14–15 September), Kirk men International Airport (Tm6) had near-normal (29 September), and Michael (8 October). Michael temperatures during 2018. Slightly cooler-than- evolved from a low-pressure system in the Caribbean normal conditions were observed at Puerto Limón that affected the region with heavy rains and (Tm4) and Liberia (Tm7). All stations observed less accompanying human impacts in most of Central frequent maximum Tm values than the mean. America (Online Table S7.1). In the ETP, Tropical Storm Vicente developed off Guatemala on 20 (ii) Precipitation October; however, no tropical storm made landfall on The accumulated pentad precipitation (P; mm) the isthmus. For additional information on regional time series for the nine stations in Central America impacts from hydrometeorological events during are presented in Fig. 7.8. Annual accumulations were 2018, refer to Online Table S7.1. near normal at Philip Goldson International Airport Several severe storms occurred across the region (P1), Choluteca (P8), and Puerto San José (P9). Puerto during April–November. During the eight-month Lempira (P3) and David (P5) were slightly wetter than period, a total of 28 fatalities were reported with 27 normal, and Puerto Barrios (P2) and Puerto Limón people injured by lightning strikes (Online Table (P4) were significantly wetter than normal. Tocumen S7.2). International Airport (P6) and Liberia (P7) reported below-normal precipitation, with Liberia having the 2) Caribbean—T. S. Stephenson, M. A. Taylor, A. R. Trotman, larger precipitation deficit. Low-level circulation C. J. Van Meerbeeck, J. D. Campbell, A. Brown, and J. Spence anomalies in the westernmost Caribbean Sea region showed slightly above-average values during July (i) Temperature (vectors in Fig. 7.8) in the trade wind system, a In 2018, most of the Caribbean basin exhibited condition usually associated with above- (below-) above-average annual mean surface temperatures, normal precipitation in the Caribbean (Pacific) with the highest anomalies toward the northwest and the Guianas. Much of the northwest was at least 0.25°–0.75°C warmer than nor- mal, with Jamaica and northern Baha- mas at least 0.75°– 1.5°C warmer. In contrast, parts of the southern and eastern Caribbean experienced below- a v e r a g e a n n u a l mean temperatures (Fig. 7.9). The an- nual average maxi- Fig. 7.9. (a) Annual mean temperature anomalies (°C) relative to a 1981–2010 base mum temperature— period. Coral reef watch maps for (b) Aug and (c) Oct 2018. The red rectangle indicates 32.3°C observed at the north/west Caribbean. The blue rectangle indicates the south/east Caribbean. the Sangster Inter- [Source: Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology (CIMH).] nat iona l A ir por t S198 | SEPTEMBER 2019 S U P P L E M E N T STATE OF THE CLIMATE IN 2018 Jessica Blunden and derek s. arndt, eds. This document is a supplement to State of the Climate in 2018, Jessica Blunden and Derek S. Arndt, Eds. (Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 100 (9), ES1–ES30) • ©2019 American Meteorological Society • DOI:10.1175/2019BAMSstateoftheClimate.2 CHAPTER 7: REGIONAL CLIMATES—P. Bissolli, C. Ganter, T. Li, A. Mekonnen, and A. Sanchez-Lugo, Eds. Central America and the Caribbean (Section 7c) Table S7.1.Summary of events and impacts, including number of fatalities (f), missing people (m), injured people (i), affected people (a), number of affected families (n), and damaged houses (d), by country and specific region. [Data sources: Central American National Weather Services, National Emergency Committees communications and regional newspapers] Dates Hydrometeorological Country Specific Region Impacts (2018) Conditions Rainfall, overflow of rivers and floods associated 28a, 272n, Colón province 06 Jun with a cold front 303d Colón province 19 May Rainfall, thunderstorm and strong winds 1m, 16n Coclé province 08 Sep Rainfall and overflow of rivers 1f, 1i Panamá Ngäbe-Buglé Shire 09 Oct Rainfall and overflow of rivers 4f Corregimientos Cativá, Heavy rainfall, landslides, overflow of rivers and 15 Nov 1435a, 300d Cristóbal and Buena Vista floods Curundú river and Coclé 19 Nov Heavy rainfall, overflow of rivers and floods 1f, 12d province San José province 04 Jan Low-temperatures associated with a cold front 2f Los Guido, San José province 13–14 Jun Heavy rainfall, floods, landslides and strong winds 12a, 8d Upala, Alajuela province and Santa Cecilia, Guanacaste 19–20 Jun Rainfall and floods associated with a tropical wave 110a, 78d province Ruta 32, Turrialba, Limón, Heavy rainfall, floods and landlides associated with 1f, 1500a, Talamanca, Matina, Sarapiquí, 14–20 Jul a tropical wave 432n Guatuso and San Carlos Granadilla, Curridabat 10 Sep Rainfall and landslides 82a Costa Rica Guanacaste and Puntarenas Heavy rainfall, landslides and floods associated 05–06 Oct 1f, 1i, 1666a province with a low pressure system Sarapiquí, Heredia province and Domilicalito, Puntarenas 11–12 Oct Heavy rainfall, overflow of rivers and strong winds 3f, 15a province Cartago,Guanacaste, Puntarenus and Limón 17–21 Oct Heavy rainfall, overflow of rivers and floods 7f, 557a provinces Santa Clara Vieja, San Vito, 06 Nov Heavy rainfall and landslides 40a, 13d Coto Brus Madriz and Carazo Rainfall and floods associated with Tropical Storm 26 May 1f, 23d departments Alberto Managua, Granada, Rivas, Nicaragua Carazo, Masaya, Chinandega, Rainfall, landslides and floods associated with the 20f, 24 461a, León, Madriz, Matagalpa, 04–20 Oct rainy season 5436d Jinotega, Estelí, Boaco and Nueva Segovia departments ES32 | SEPTEMBER 2019 Dates Hydrometeorological Country Specific Region Impacts (2018) Conditions La Libertad department 30 Jun Strong winds 1i, 1d Guadalupe, San Vicente 23 Apr Rainfall, hail and strong winds 13d department La Libertad and Santa Ana 26–27 Apr Rainfall, thunderstorm 15d departments Nahuizalco, Sonsonante 21 May Heavy rainfall, landslides and floods 1f, 5i department La Libertad and La Unión 28 May Heavy rainfall, landslides and floods 1f, 6i, 30d departments Puente Cuscatlán and Tecoluca, San Vicente department; Villa El Rosario El and Osicala, Morazán Salvador department; Berlin and San 22 Jun– Severe drought 77 322a Marcos Lempa, Usulután 20 Jul department; Conchagua, La Unión department; Zacatecoluca, La Paz department Ahuachapán and Sonsonate 26 Aug Heavy rainfall and floods 62d departments Ahuachapán and Sonsonate, La Libertad, La Paz, San Heavy rainfall, landslides and floods associated 6f, 2m, 22i, 05–19 Oct Miguel, Morazán, and La with a low pressure system 773a, 2175d Unión departments San Salvador department 28 Oct Rainfall and landslides 1f Rainfall and overflow of rivers associated with a Colón department 04 Jan 2f cold front Omoa, Choloma, San Pedro Sula, San Manuel, 5f, 1m, 4i, Villa Nueva, Potrerios, 29 Jan– 64 444a, Puerto Cortes, Azacualpa, Rainfall and landslides associated with a cold front 02 Feb 12 923n, Macuelizo, Quimistán, El 545d Progreso, Danli, Tocoa and Utila municipalities Comayagua, El Paraíso, Francisco Morazán, Intibucá, Olancho, Lempira, 05 Jul– Sever drought 170 300n Copán, Ocotepeque, Yoró, 25 Aug Honduras Choluteca, La Paz and Valle departments El Paraíso, San Pedro Sula 11 Sep Rainfall, floods, thunderstorm and strong winds 180n Lempira, Copán, Olancho, Ocotepeque, Francisco 10f, 5i, Morazán, Comayagua, Heavy rainfall, landslides,and floods associated 33 749a, La Paz, Valle, Cortés, 04–21 Oct with a low pressure system 8546n, Choluteca, El Paraíso, Yoró, 1440d Santa Bárbara and Intibucá departments Atlántida, Colón and Islas de Rainfall, overflow of rivers, floods and landslides 3m, 14 162a, 14–18 Nov la Bahia departments associated with a cold front 2845n, 29d Tegucigalpa, Atlántida, and Rainfall, overflow of rivers, floods and low 2f, 1i,7972a, 11–12 Dec Colón departments temperatures associated with a cold front 1454n, 9d STATE OF THE CLIMATE IN 2018 SEPTEMBER 2019 | ES33 Dates Hydrometeorological Country Specific Region Impacts (2018) Conditions Alta Verapaz, Baja Verapaz, 24 Jan– 2m, 95 825a, Izabal, Quiché, Petén and Rainfall, overflow of rivers and floods 20 Feb 2167d Huehuetenango departments 1f, 1m, Heavy rainfall, landslides, overflow of rivers and The entire country 15–31 May 282 461a, floods 436d Heavy rainfall, landslides, overflow of rivers and 4f, 284 032a, The entire country 01–27 Jun floods 245d Chiquimula, Jutiapa, Zacapa, Huehuetenango, El Progreso, 20 Jun– Jalaá, Baja Verapaz, Quiché, Severe drought 291 705n Guatemala 15 AugQuetzaltenango, Guatemala and Santa Rosa departments Petén and Chiquimula 12 Sep Heavy rainfall, landslides and floods 184a, 32d departments Concepción Tutuapa, San 25 Sep Heavy rainfall, landslides and floods 2f, 30a Marcos Baja Verapaz, Escuintla, Guatemala, Jutiapa, Petén, 1f, 1i, Heavy rainfall, landslides and floods associated Quetzaltenango, Retalhuleu, 07–19 Oct 46 097a, with a low pressure system San Marcos, Santa Rosa and 3236d Suchitepéquez departments ES34 | SEPTEMBER 2019 Table S7.2. Summary of events and impacts, including number of fatalities (f) and injured people (i) by lightning strikes, by country and specific region. [Data sources: Central American National Weather Services, National Emergency Committees communications and regional newspapers] Contry Specific Region Dates (2018) Impacts Chiriquí province 27 Apr 5i Boquete, Chiriquí province 06 May 1f Panamá Ngäbe-Buglé Shire 23 Jun 2f Juan Hombrón, Coclé province 08 Aug 2f, 1i Darién province 09 Sep 1i Alajuela province 29 Apr 1i Cajón, Pérez Zeledón 08 May 1f, 4i Monteverde, Puntarenus province 15 Jun 1f Costa Rica Los Chiles, Alajuela province 08 Aug 1f, 2i Cerro Pelado, Guanacaste province 22 Sep 1f Cocal, Siquires 14 Oct 3i Río San Juan department 26 May 1f Nicaragua Ometepe Island 08 Jun 1f 2 nautical miles, Caribbean Sea 19 Sep 1f, 2i El Sonsonate department 29 Aug 1f, 2i Salvador Intibucá department 01 May 2f, 3i Honduras Gracias a Dios department 15 Jul 3f, 3i Gracias a Dios department 25 Aug 1f Retalhuleu and Escuintla departments 07–09 Apr 2f Guatemala Alta VeraPaz department 14 May 1f Retalhuleu department 29 Jun 2f Shipyard Village, Orange 16 Jun 1f Toledo 23 Aug 1f Belice Ranchito Village, Corozal 09 Sep 1f Spanish Lookout, Cayo 02 Nov 1f Total 28f, 27i STATE OF THE CLIMATE IN 2018 SEPTEMBER 2019 | ES35