Medicina, ciencias biomédicas y salud pública

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10 años de experiencia con el uso de tratamiento biológico en pacientes con artritis idiopática juvenil en el Hospital Nacional de Niños “Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera”
(2024) Chacón González, Constanza; Ivankovich Escoto, Gabriela
La artritis idiopática juvenil (AIJ) es la enfermedad reumática crónica más común en la edad pediátrica, caracterizada por inflamación articular durante más de seis semanas en menores de 16 años, y cuando no se ha logrado identificar otra causa para la artritis. Sin tratamiento, puede llevar a secuelas que comprometen la calidad de vida de los pacientes. Su abordaje se basa en disminuir la inflamación, con el fin de permitirle al paciente el mayor tiempo libre de síntomas y sin complicaciones a largo plazo. Los tratamientos biológicos se han convertido en un pilar terapéutico para esta población. En Costa Rica no existen estudios que caractericen la evolución de los pacientes con AIJ, particularmente de aquellos que han recibido terapia biológica. Este es el primer estudio donde se analizarán las características de los pacientes con diagnóstico de AIJ entre los años 2014 y 2024 que han recibido tratamiento biológico en el Hospital Nacional de Niños, Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera, de la Caja Costarricense del Seguro Social, con el fin de justificar el uso de este tratamiento.
Un 4,5% de casos positivos en Pavas no descarta transmisión comunitaria
(2020-07-02) Rosero Bixby, Luis
El 4,5% de positividad significa 4.000 habitantes del distrito infectados, número que indica una catastrófica transmisión comunitaria y, lo más grave, transmisión asintomática rampante.
A brief account of the history of family planning in Costa Rica
(2009) Carranza Maxera, María
Costa Rica has been a focus of demographic attention for at least two reasons: its startling rate of natural population growth, which peaked at 3.8% during 1955 and 1960 and which was considered one of the highest in the world3; and the astounding decline in the total fertility rate, from 7.3 to 3.7 children, that took place between 1960 and 1975, and which has rarely been recorded elsewhere (Gómez, 1968: 3; Reynolds, 1973: 312; Rosero-Bixby, 1979: 4). This sharp reduction in the fertility rate, which occurred in all strata of the population, albeit with varying intensity and chronology4, has been attributed in large measure to the use of modern contraceptive methods (Rosero-Bixby, 1979:13; 1986: 70-71). Their provision by state health institutions played a fundamental role in accelerating the phenomenon and spreading it from urban and educated women (among whom it started) to rural and less educated women (Rosero-Bixby, 1986: 70-71).
A case-control study of breast cancer and hormonal contraception in Costa Rica
(1987) Rosero Bixby, Luis; Grimaldo Vásquez, Carmen; Rovira, Elizabeth; Lee, Nancy C.; Oberle, Mark W.; Watley, Anne S.
By 1981, 11% of married women in Costa Rica ages 20-49 years had used depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) and 58% had used oral contraceptives (OCs). Since 1977, the Costa Rican Ministry of Health has maintained a nationwide cancer registry. These circumstances provided an opportunity for a population-based, case-control study of DMPA, OCs, and breast cancer in Costa Rica. Cases were 171 women ages 25-58 years with breast cancer diagnosed between 1982 and 1984; controls were 826 women randomly chosen during a nationwide household survey. Cases and controls were interviewed with the use of a standard questionnaire covering their reproductive and contraceptive histories. Logistic regression methods were used to adjust for confounding factors. While few cases or controls had ever used DMPA, DMPA users had an elevated relative risk (RR) estimate of breast cancer of 2.6 (95% confidence limits=1.4-4.7) compared with never users. However, no dose-response relationship was found; even the group of women who had used DMPA for less than 1 year had an elevated RR estimate (RR =2.3; 95% confidence limits=1.0-5.1). In contrast, OC users had no elevation in RR compared with never users (RR=1.2; 95% confidence limits= 0.8-1.8). The results of the DMPA analysis are inconclusive. Before decisions are made on whether to continue providing this effective contraceptive method, other ongoing studies will need to confirm of refute these findings.
A cross-national comparison of 12 biomarkers finds no universal biomarkers of aging among individuals aged 60 and older
(2016) Rehkopf, David H.; Rosero Bixby, Luis; Dow, William H.
There is uncertainty about whether biological and anthropometric measures that are clinical risk factors for disease are universally associated with chronological age, or whether these correlations vary depending on the social and economic context. The answer to this question has implications for the malleability of biological aging. To examine this issue, we use population-based data on individuals aged 60 and older from the Costa Rican Study on Longevity and Healthy Aging, and temporally consistent data from the United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and the United States Health and Retirement Study. Our analysis focuses on 12 biomarkers that have been shown in the literature to have an association with age, and that occur prior to the clinical manifestation of disease. We find that there are few consistent patterns of association with age when these biomarkers are stratified by gender, country, and level of education. This result suggests that these measures of biological aging are highly context-dependent, and that none of the 12 biomarkers we examined are universal biomarkers of aging. Future research that investigates composite measures of biological age should test newly proposed measures across gender, social class, and country.
A detailed analysis of open-field habituation and behavioral and neurochemical antidepressant-like effects in postweaning enriched rats
(2009-01-30) Brenes Sáenz, Juan Carlos; Padilla Mora, Michael; Fornaguera Trías, Jaime
Our previous work has shown that male Sprague–Dawley rats reared in social isolation, standard housing and environmental enrichment differ in their spontaneous open-field activity and in some neurobehavioral depressive-like parameters. Here, we extended this evidence by using a shorter postweaning rearing period (1 month) and including additional evaluations. First, in order to obtain a better characterization of the exploratory strategies among rearing conditions we analyzed in detail the spontaneous activity at the first minute and during the 10-min session. Second, we asked whether the changes in open-field activity were related with basal anxiety levels in the elevated plus-maze. Third, behavior in the forced-swimming test was analyzed and afterward, the tissue levels of hippocampal norepinephrine and serotonin were assessed. The possible relationship between neurotransmitters and forced-swimming behavior were explored through correlation analyses. We found that rearing conditions (i) differed on locomotor habituation and on sensory-motor exploration at the first minute and during the 10-min session without modifying the plus-maze behavior; (ii) affected differentially the grooming time, its sequential components, and the relationship between grooming and locomotor parameters; (iii) modified forced-swimming behavior and the hippocampal concentration of norepinephrine, serotonin, and its turnover; and (iv) produced different correlation patterns between both neurotransmitters and forced-swimming behaviors. Overall, environmental enrichment accelerated open-field habituation and led to behavioral and neurochemical antidepressant-like effects. In contract, isolation rearing strongly impaired habituation and simple information processing, but showed marginal effects on depressive-like behavior and on hippocampal neurochemistry. The current results suggest that differential rearing is not only a useful procedure to study behavioral plasticity or rigidity in response to early experience, but also to modeling some developmental protective or risk factors underlying depressive disorders.
A DNA pooling based system to detect Escherichia coli virulence factors in fecal and wastewater samples
(2012) Cortés Bratti, Ximena; Chacón Jiménez, Luz María; Taylor Castillo, Mayra Lizeth; Valiente Álvarez, Carmen Isabel; Alvarado Pérez, Irene
The availability of a useful tool for simple and timely detection of the most important virulent varieties of Escherichia coli is indispensable. To this end, bacterial DNA pools which had previously been categorized were obtained from isolated colonies as well as selected in terms of utilized phenotype; the pools were assessed by two PCR Multiplex for the detection of virulent E. coli eaeA, bfpA, stx1, stx2, ipaH, ST, LT, and aatA genes, with the 16S gene used as DNA control. The system was validated with 66 fecal samples and 44 wastewater samples. At least one positive isolate was detected by a virulent gene among the 20 that were screened. The analysis of fecal samples from children younger than 6 years of age detected frequencies of 25% LT positive strains, 8.3% eae, 8.3% bfpA, 16.7% ipaH, as well as 12.5 % aatA and ST. On the other hand, wastewater samples revealed frequencies of 25.7% eaeA positive, 30.3% stx1, 15.1% LT and 19.7% aatA. This study is an initial step toward carrying out epidemiological field research that will reveal the presence of these bacterial varieties.
A high performance liquid chromatography method with electrochemical detection of gamma-aminobutyric acid, glutamate and glutamine in rat brain homogenates
(2009) Monge Acuña, Andrea A.; Fornaguera Trías, Jaime
Determination of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate (Glu) and glutamine (Gln) in animal models has been important to understand the normal function and clinical aspects of some neurological diseases. Quantification of these amino acid transmitters has conventionally been performed by using a high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system. This paper describes an improved HPLC method with electrochemical detection for glutamate, glutamine and GABA determination in brain homogenates. The protocol is based on a precolumn derivatization of amino acids with o-phthalaldehyde and sodium sulfite, a separation through a C18, 5 μm particle size column and an isocratic elution. Several modifications of previous works on methanol percentage, pH, temperature, flow rate and derivatization solution concentration were done to obtain a suitable protocol for amino acid quantification in brain homogenate samples. Total elution time is 35 min approximately. Technical requirements and laboratory expenses of this new protocol are minimal. This technique showed high linearity, repeatability and accuracy.
A multinational Delphi consensus to end the COVID-19 public health threat
(2022-11-03) Lazarus, Jeffrey V.; Romero, Diana; Kopka, Christopher J.; Abdool Karim, Salim; Abu-Raddad, Laith J.; Almeida, Gisele; Baptista Leite, Ricardo; Barocas, Joshua A.; Barreto, Mauricio Lima; Bar-Yam, Yaneer; Bassat, Quique; Batista, Carolina; Bazilian, Morgan; Chiou, Shu-Ti; del Rio, Carlos; Dore, Gregory J.; Gao, George F.; Gostin, Lawrence O.; Hellard, Margaret; Jiménez, Jose L.; Kang, Gagandeep; Lee, Nancy; Matičič, Mojca; McKee, Martin; Nsanzimana, Sabin; Oliu-Barton, Miquel; Pradelski, Bary; Pyzik, Oksana; Rabin, Kenneth; Raina, Sunil; Faiz Rashid, Sabina; Rathe, Magdalena; Saenz, Rocio; Singh, Sudhvir; Trock-Hempler, Malene; Villapol, Sonia; Yap, Peiling; Binagwaho, Agnes; Kamarulzaman, Adeeba; El-Mohandes, Ayman; The COVID-19 Consensus Statement Panel
Despite notable scientific and medical advances, broader political, socioeconomic and behavioural factors continue to undercut the response to the COVID-19 pandemic1,2. Here we convened, as part of this Delphi study, a diverse, multidisciplinary panel of 386 academic, health, non-governmental organization, government and other experts in COVID-19 response from 112 countries and territories to recommend specific actions to end this persistent global threat to public health. The panel developed a set of 41 consensus statements and 57 recommendations to governments, health systems, industry and other key stakeholders across six domains: communication; health systems; vaccination; prevention; treatment and care; and inequities. In the wake of nearly three years of fragmented global and national responses, it is instructive to note that three of the highest-ranked recommendations call for the adoption of whole-of-society and whole-of-government approaches1, while maintaining proven prevention measures using a vaccines-plus approach2 that employs a range of public health and financial support measures to complement vaccination. Other recommendations with at least 99% combined agreement advise governments and other stakeholders to improve communication, rebuild public trust and engage communities3 in the management of pandemic responses. The findings of the study, which have been further endorsed by 184 organizations globally, include points of unanimous agreement, as well as six recommendations with >5% disagreement, that provide health and social policy actions to address inadequacies in the pandemic response and help to bring this public health threat to an end.
A new look at the determinants of nonnumeric response to desired family size: the case of Costa Rica
(1993) Riley, Ann P.; Hermalin, Albert I.; Rosero Bixby, Luis
High levels of nonresponse or inappropriate response to items are a persistent concern in survey research because those who do not answer may not be representative of the study population. Thus nonresponse introduces potential bias in the point estimates as well as in multivariate analyses, which use the responses in question as either an independent or a dependent variable. Researchers often have little recourse but to form a "don't know” or "not available" category from the failure to respond (or to be responsive). They must either omit these cases, treat them as a separate category, or impute a value on the basis of other characteristics of the respondent (Croft 1991; Kalton and Kasprzyk 1986).
A novel myosin heavy chain gene in human chromosome 19q13.3
(Gene: 312 p. 165-171, 2003-07) Leal Esquivel, Alejandro; Endele, Sabine; Stengel, Corinna; Huehe, Kartrin; Loetterle, Joachim; Barrantes Mesén, Ramiro; Winterpacht, Andreas; Rautenstrauss, Bernd
A human myosin heavy chain gene was identified in chromosome 19q13 by computational sequence analysis, RT-PCR and DNA sequencing of the cDNA. The complete cDNA has a length of 6786 bp and comprises 41 exons (40 coding) included in 108 kb of genomic sequence. Alternative splicing variants were also identified. The gene is expressed in a multitude of tissues, but mainly in small intestine, colon and skeletal muscle. The putative protein (228 kDa) carries the common myosin domains and presents high homology with the nonmuscle myosin heavy chains (MYH9 and MY1410) as well as the smooth muscle myosin heavy chain MYH11. Nevertheless, phylogenetic analysis indicated that these homologous proteins are more related among themselves than to MY1-114, suggesting that possibly this myosin heavy chain should be classified in a new myosin-subfamily.
A polymorphism in the MSH3 mismatch repair gene is associated with the levels of somatic instability of the expanded CTG repeat in the blood DNA of myotonic dystrophy type 1 patients
(2016-04) Morales Montero, Fernando; Vásquez Cerdas, Melissa; Santamaría Ulloa, Carolina; Cuenca Berger, Patricia; Corrales Acuña, Eyleen Vanessa; Monckton, Darren G.
Somatic mosaicism of the expanded CTG repeat in myotonic dystrophy type 1 is age-dependent, tissuespecific and expansion-biased, contributing toward the tissue-specificity and progressive nature of the symptoms. Previously, using regression modelling of repeat instability we showed that variation in the rate of somatic expansion in blood DNA contributes toward variation in age of onset, directly implicating somatic expansion in the disease pathway. Here, we confirm these results using a larger more genetically homogenous Costa Rican DM1 cohort (p < 0.001). Interestingly, we also provide evidence that supports subtle sex-dependent differences in repeat length-dependent age at onset and somatic mutational dynamics. Previously, we demonstrated that variation in the rate of somatic expansion was a heritable quantitative trait. Given the important role that DNA mismatch repair genes play in mediating expansions in mouse models, we tested for modifier gene effects with 13 DNA mismatch gene polymorphisms (one each in MSH2, PMS2, MSH6 and MLH1; and nine in MSH3). After correcting for allele length and age effects, we identified three polymorphisms in MSH3 that were associated with variation in somatic instability: Rs26279 (p = 0.003); Rs1677658 (p = 0.009); and Rs10168 (p = 0.031). However, only the association with Rs26279 remained significant after multiple testing correction. Although we revealed a statistically significant association between Rs26279 and somatic instability, we did not detect an association with the age at onset. Individuals with the A/A genotype for Rs26279 tended to show a greater propensity to expand the CTG repeat than other genotypes. Interestingly, this SNP results in an amino acid change in the critical ATPase domain of MSH3 and is potentially functionally dimorphic. These data suggest that MSH3 is a key player in generating somatic variation in DM1 patients and further highlight MSH3 as a potential therapeutic target.
A Population-based Serosurveillance of Syphilis in Costa Rica
(1991-04) Larsen, Sandra A.; Oberle, Mark W.; Sánchez Braverman, Juana M.; Rosero Bixby, Luis; Vetter, Kathleen M.
As part of a case-control study to investigate the high incidence of cervical cancer in Costa Rican women, the seroprevalence of the treponematoses, in particular, syphilis was determined. In each age group, women with a history of two or more sex partners were two to four times more likely to be seroreactive in tests for s[spacing grave]philis than women with zero or one sex partner. The highest percentage of reactive results in the microhemagglutination assay for antibodies to Treponema pallidum (MHA-TP) was seen in samples from women aged 50-59 who had had two or more lifetime partners (23.8%). Three observations from our study support reactivity due to syphilis rather than yaws or pinta: (1) a similar percent of reactive rapid plasma reagin (RPR) card test results among MHA-TP reactors in the two age groups of women who were surveyed (42 vs. 49%) was observed; (2) women who were seroreactive in the MHA-TP had multiple risk factors for STD [low socioeconomic status (9.4%), urban residence (22.8%), first intercourse under 16 years of age (14.1%), and multiple sex partners (26.3%)], and (3) only sexually experienced women had reactive results in the MHA-TP test.
A Protocol to Perform Systemic Lipopolysacharide (LPS) Challenge in Rats
(2019-01-01) Ramírez Chan, Karol Gabriela; Quesada Yamasaki, Daniel; Fornaguera Trías, Jaime
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. In animals, intraperitoneal administration of LPS, stimulates innate immunity and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. LPS provides an inflammatory stimulus that activates the neuroimmune and neuroendocrine systems resulting in a set of responses termed sickness behavior. The purpose of this protocol is to describe step-by-step the preparation and procedure of application of intraperitoneal injection of LPS in rats, as a guide for those researchers that want to use this assay to mount an inflammatory response. LPS intraperitoneal challenge in rats has been widely used to evaluate anti-inflammatory reagents and to address basic scientific questions.
A public health approach to the “Food-Malnutrition-Economic Recession” complex
(1988) Mata Jiménez, Leonardo
The authors in this volume disagree as to whether the current economic world recession and its accompanying adjustment policies affect nutrition and health. Based on the data presented throughout this volume and the discussions at the Takemi Symposium, I am not convinced that current world economic conditions have significantly changed the nutritional state and survival of children in less developed countries—except in certain regions of Africa. This is not to say that such an effect does not exist—economic adjustments made by nations at the macro level and by families at the household level might have acted as a buffer. Any serious attempt to correlate economic phenomena with nutrition and 'Tiealth must take into account certain fundamental variables not immediately obvious to economists and policymakers. Discussions of this topic, for example, may suffer from problems in data collection which are particular to the field of public health. In addition, if the concept of malnutrition is to be used in a discussion of economics, it must be precisely defined in biological terms, and what we know of its causes must be understood and considered. Health factors, including illness, and other sociological factors which cause malnutrition need to be described. To understand these variables we must step outside the realm of policymaking and the discipline of economics. This chapter discusses some of these variables and their effects on analyses of health, nutrition and economic policy.
A review of Bioinformatics training applied to research in Molecular Medicine, Agriculture and Biodiversity in Costa Rica and Central America
(Briefings in Bioinformatics, 14(5): 661-670, 2013-04-13) Orozco Solano, Allan; Morera Huertas, Jessica; Jiménez, Sergio; Boza Cordero, Ricardo
Today, Bioinformatics has become a scientific discipline with great relevance for the Molecular Biosciences and for the Omics sciences in general. Although developed countries have progressed with large strides in Bioinformatics education and research, in other regions, such as Central America, the advances have occurred in a gradual way and with little support from the Academia, either at the undergraduate or graduate level. To address this problem, the University of Costa Rica’s Medical School, a regional leader in Bioinformatics in Central America, has been conducting a series of Bioinformatics workshops, seminars and courses, leading to the creation of the region’s first Bioinformatics Master’s Degree. The recent creation of the Central American Bioinformatics Network (BioCANET), associated to the deployment of a supporting computational infrastructure (HPC Cluster) devoted to provide computing support for Molecular Biology in the region, is providing a foundational stone for the development of Bioinformatics in the area.Central American bioinformaticians have participated in the creation of as well as co-founded the Iberoamerican Bioinformatics Society (SOIBIO). In this article, we review the most recent activities in education and research in Bioinformatics from several regional institutions. These activities have resulted in further advances for Molecular Medicine, Agriculture and Biodiversity research in Costa Rica and the rest of the Central American countries. Finally, we provide summary information on the first Central America Bioinformatics International Congress, as well as the creation of the first Bioinformatics company (Indromics Bioinformatics), spin-off the Academy in Central America and the Caribbean.
A schizophrenia gene locus on chromosome 17q21 in a new set of families of mexican and central american ancestry: evidence from the NIMH genetics of schizophrenia in latino populations study
(Am J Psychiatry 2009;166:442-449, 2009-02-02) Escamilla, Michael; Hare, Elizabeth; Dassori, Albana; Peralta, Juan Manuel; Ontiveros, Humberto; Nicolini Sánchez, José Humberto; Medina, Rolando; Mendoza Rodríguez, Ricardo; Muñoz, Rodrigo; Almasy, Laura; Raventós Vorst, Henriette; Jerez, Álvaro
The present study investigated a new set of families of Latin American ancestry in order to detect the location of genes predisposing to schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders. Method: A genome-wide scan was performed for 175 newly recruited families with at least two siblings suffering from a psychotic disorder. Best-estimate consensus procedures were used to arrive at diagnoses, and nonparametric allele-sharing statistics were calculated to detect linkage. Results: Genome-wide significant evidence for linkage for the phenotype of DSM-IV schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder was found in a region on chromosome 17q21 (lod score, 3.33). A region on chromosome 15q22-23 showed suggestive evidence of linkage with this same phenotype (lod score, 2.11). Analyses using a broader model (any psychosis) yielded evidence of suggestive linkage for the 17q21 region only, and no region achieved genome- wide significance of linkage.
A Second Locus for an Axonal Form of Autosomal Recessive Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease Maps to Chromosome 19q13.3
(American Journal Human Genetic ; 68 (1 p. 269-274, 2001) Leal Esquivel, Alejandro; Morera Brenes, Bernal; del Valle Carazo, Gerardo; Heuss, Dieter; Kayser, Corinna; Berghoff, Martin; Villegas Palma, Ramón; Hernández, Erick; Méndez, María; Hennies, Hans Christian; Bernhard, Neundörfer; Barrantes Mesén, Ramiro; Reis, André; Rautenstrauss, Bernd
Autosomal recessive Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) represents a heterogeneous group of disorders affecting the peripheral nervous system. The axonal form of the disease is designated as "CMT type 2" (CMT2), and one locus (1q21.2-q21.3) has been reported for the autosomal recessive form. Here we report the results of a genomewide search in an inbred Costa Rican family (CR-1) affected with autosomal recessive CMT2. By analyzing three branches of the family we detected linkage to the 19q13.3 region, and subsequent homozygosity mapping defined shared haplotypes between markers D195902 and D19S907 in a 5.5-cM range. A maximum two-point LOD score of 9.08 was obtained for marker 019S867, at a recombination fraction of .00, which strongly supports linkage to this locus. The epithelial membrane protein 3 gene, encoding a PMP22 homologous protein and located on 19q13.3, was ruled out as being responsible for this form of CMT. The age at onset of chronic symmetric sensory-motor polyneuropathy was 28-42 years (mean 33.8 years); the electrophysiological data clearly reflect an axonal degenerative process. The phenotype and locus are different from those of demyelinating CMT4F, recently mapped to 19q13.1-13.3; hence, the disease affecting the Costa Rican family constitutes an axonal, autosomal recessive CMT subtype (ARCMT2B).
A somatic coliphage threshold approach to improve the management of activated sludge wastewater treatment plant effluents in resource-limited regions
(2020-06) Chacón Jiménez, Luz María; Barrantes Jiménez, Kenia; Santamaría Ulloa, Carolina; Solano Barquero, Melissa; Reyes Lizano, Liliana; Taylor Castillo, Lizeth; Valiente Álvarez, Carmen Isabel; Symonds, ‪Erin Michelle; Achí Araya, María Rosario
Effective wastewater management is crucial to ensure the safety of water reuse projects and 29 effluent discharge into surface waters. Multiple studies have demonstrated that municipal 30 wastewater treatment with conventional activated sludge processes is inefficient for the removal 31 of the wide spectrum of viruses in sewage. In this study, a well-accepted statistical approach was 32 used to investigate the relationship between viral indicators and human enteric viruses during 33 wastewater treatment in a resource-limited region. Influent and effluent samples from five urban 34 wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) in Costa Rica were analyzed for somatic coliphage and 35 human enterovirus, hepatitis A virus, norovirus genotype I and II, and rotavirus. All WWTP 36 provide primary treatment followed by conventional activated sludge treatment prior to 37 discharge into surface waters that are indirectly used for agricultural irrigation. The results 38 revealed a statistically significant relationship between the detection of at least one of the five 39 human enteric viruses and somatic coliphage. Multiple logistic regression and Receiver Operating Characteristic curve analysis identified a threshold of 3.0 ×103 40 (3.5-log10) somatic 41 coliphage plaque forming unit per 100 mL, which corresponded to an increased likelihood of encountering enteric viruses above the limit of detection (>1.83×102 42 virus target/100 mL). 43 Additionally, quantitative microbial risk assessment was executed for famers indirectly reusing 44 WWTP effluent that met the proposed threshold. The resulting estimated median cumulative 45 annual disease burden complied with World Health Organization recommendations. Future 46 studies are needed to validate the proposed threshold for use in Costa Rica and other regions.
A video image analyzing system for open-field behavior in the rat focusing on behavioral asymmetries
(1993) Schwarting, Rainer K. W.; Goldenberg, R.; Steiner, Heinz; Fornaguera Trías, Jaime; Huston, Joseph P.
A video image analyzing system is presented which measures turning behavior, thigmotactic scanning and locomotion in rats. The system works by analyzing digitized video images obtained by a black/white video camera. Turning behavior is expressed in different diameter classes and as partial or full turns. Thigmotactic scanning is expressed as distance or time locomoted with the left or right side of the body along one of the walls of the testing environment. Locomotion is measured as distance travelled and is expressed in meters. Examples for the application of these behavioral measures are given which include: the measurement of spontaneous or drug-dependent behavioral asymmetries after brain lesion (the unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine model), a unilateral peripheral manipulation (hemivibrissotomy), and the measurement of open-field behavior (spontaneous or drug-induced) in intact animals. Among others, these examples show that the analysis of thigmotactic scanning may provide an alternative behavioral measure,which may be especially useful in the study of functional asymmetries.

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